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NEW 
GEOGRAPHY 


BOOK  TWO 


BY 


WALLACE  W.  ATWOOD 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 

BOSTON  •  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  -  LONDON 
ATLANTA  •  DALLAS  -  COLUMBUS  -   SAN  FRANCISCO 


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PREFACE 


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In  this  series  Book  One  has  introduced  the  child  to 
the  study  of  geography  in  a  most  delightful  and 
effective  way.  After  visiting  homes  in  various  parts  of 
the  world  an  introductory  study  is  made  of  the  different 
nations  of  the  earth.  Book  Two  follows  a  wholly  new 
method  of  treatment,  avoids  repetition  of  matter  pre- 
sented in  Book  One,  and  guides  the  pupil  to  a  much 
fuller  knowledge  and  understanding  of  geography. 

Human  geography  is  the  keynote  of  the  series.  Em- 
phasis is  given  to  the  study  of  those  factors  that  have  a 
controlling  influence  upon  the  life  and  activities  of  people. 
The  "  New  Geography  "  becomes  an  applied  science  of 
fundamental  significance  to  all  American  citizens. 

The  natural  regions  of  the  world,  differing  as  they  do 
in  surface  features,  climate,  and  resources,  have  produced 
widely  different  occupations  and  modes  of  life.  They 
serve,  therefore,  as  the  best  units  for  study. 

Regional  geography  is  not  a  new  idea;  it  is  the  goal 
toward  which  the  best  scientific  thought  and  the  best 
pedagogy  have  long  been  progressing.  The  simplicity 
and  the  logic  of  this  approach  have  each  year  won  new 
supporters.  The  one  thing  lacking  has  been  a  textbook 
constructed  on  this  principle. 

Regional  maps.  The  division  of  the  United  States  into 
natural  regions  as  shown  in  this  book  is  the  work  of 
the  geographers  of  the  Association  of  American  Geog- 
raphers and  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
For  the  other  countries  of  the  world  the  leading  authori- 
ties of  several  nations  have  been  studied.  The  consistent 
use  of  one  simple  color  scheme  on  the  maps  enables  the 
pupil  to  gain  most  easily  a  picture  of  the  different  physical 
settings  in  which  the  scenes  of  human  life  are  enacted. 

Other  maps.  A  new  and  very  useful  series  of  polit- 
ical and  economic  maps  shows  graphically  the  chief 
exports  and  imports.  The  routes  Of  inland  transpor- 
tation are  also  clearly  shown.  From  these  maps  the 
essential  facts  of  commercial  geography  can  be  readily 
comprehended  and  easily  remembered. 

The  relief  and  vegetation  maps  are  also  entirely  new. 
By  a  skillful  use  of  color  they  show  the  relief,  drainage,  and 
distribution  of  vegetation.  The  series  of  colored  rainfall 
maps  indicates  effectively  the  periods  of  heavy  or  of  light 
rainfall  that  are  of  such  great  importance  in  agriculture. 


Comparative  map  studies  are  introduced  as  a  new 
feature.  With  maps  in  the  hands  of  each  pupil,  show- 
ing the  relief,  drainage,  vegetation,  rainfall,  and  distri- 
bution of  population,  the  data  are  available  for  the 
solution  of  many  excellent  problems. 

Problem  method.  The  understanding  of  the  geographic 
conditions  in  a  natural  region  is  the  fundamental  basis 
for  the  discussion  of  problems  relative  to  the  life  and 
occupations  of  the  people  living  in  that  region.  Numer- 
ous concrete  problems  and  topics  for  discussion  have  been 
formulated,  and  many  practical  exercises  that  may  be 
assigned  for  library  or  home  study  have  been  prepared. 

Picture  study.  The  illustrations  are  accompanied  by 
very  full  legends ;  each  view  teaches  some  important 
fact.  A  remarkable  series  of  aeroplane  drawings  of  the 
great  cities  and  their  surroundings  assists  in  a  proper 
emphasis  on  urban  geography. 

Mathematical  geography.  While  all  necessary  infor- 
mation has  been  given  as  needed,  mathematical  geog- 
raphy in  general  has  been  postponed  until  the  pupil  has 
become  familiar  with  the  details  that  should  serve  as 
the  basis  for  such  world-wide  or  universal  conceptions. 

The  United  States  —  a  world  power.  At  the  close  of 
the  book  the  pupil  is  brought  back  to  his  own  country. 
Against  the  background  of  world  conditions  he  now 
examines  our  natural  resources,  the  role  they  play  in 
our  industrial  life,  and  the  care  that  should  be  taken 
to  conserve  them.  This  leads  to  the  treatment  of  our 
inland  and  foreign  commerce  and  the  development  of 
our  international  relations  and  responsibilities. 

Acknowledgments.  In  the  preparation  of  this  book 
Mr.  Frye,  Mrs.  Atwood,  Mr.  William  T.  Oliver,  several 
map  experts,  many  government  departments,  many 
railroads  and  chambers  of  commerce,  the  Pan  American 
Union,  and  members  of  the  author's  staff  and  that  of 
Ginn  and  Company  have  given  most  valuable  assistance. 

The  proof  sheets  were  criticized  by  Miss  Nellie  B.  Allen 
of  Fitchburg,  Massachusetts,  by  Mrs.  Jane  Perry  Cook  of 
the  Chicago  Normal  College,  and  by  Mr.  Grant  E.  Finch 
of  the  Montana  Normal  School. 

To  all  the  author  expresses  his  sincere  thanks. 

WALLACE  W.  ATWOOD 
Clark  University 


COPYRIGHT,  1920,  BY  GINN  AND  COMPANY    •    ALL   RIGHTS  RESERVED    •    ENTERED  AT    STATIONERS'  HALL 
THE  A  THEN. Ill  ;.M   PRESS   •   GINN  AND  COMPANY    •   PROPRIETORS   •   BOSTON    .   U.S.A. 

424.1 

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CONTENTS 


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NORTH   AMERICA 

PAGE 

The  United  States 1 

Northern    Division     of     the    Appa- 
lachian Highlands  (New  England)  5 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal  Plain  .     .  14 
Southern  Division  of  the  Appalachian 

Highlands 26 

Interior  Highlands 38 

Central  Plains 39 

Great  Plains 53 

Rocky  Mountains 59 

Western  Plateaus 65 

Pacific  Mountains  and  Lowlands       .  70 

Comparative  Map  Studies       ...  82 

Possessions  of  the  United  States  83 

Alaska 83 

Hawaiian  Islands 87 

Panama  Canal  Zone 88 

Porto  Rico 90 

Virgin  Islands 91 

Philippine  Islands 92 

Guam 95 

Samoa  Islands 95 

The  Nation  as  a  Wholf      ...  98 

Canada 103 

Appalachian  Highlands     ....  103 

Laurentian  Upland 104 

Hudson  Bay  Lowland 105 

Central  Plains 105 

Great  Plains  . 106 

Western  Mountains  and  Plateaus     .  108 

Newfoundland  and  Labrador     .  110 

Mexico Ill 

Central  America 114 

West  Indies 115 

Trinidad 120 

Bermuda  Islands 120 

The  Continent  of  North  America  121 

Comparative  Map  Studies  .     .     .  124 

SOUTH  AMERICA 

Introduction 125 

Natural  Regions 127 

Brazil 130 

The  Guianas 134 

Venezuela 136 

Colombia 138 


PAGE 

Ecuador 138 

Peru 140 

Bolivia 142 

Chile 144 

Argentina 148 

Paraguay 152 

Uruguay 154 

Falkland  Islands 155 

Colon  Archipelago 155 

Comparative  Map  Studies  .     .     .  156 

EUROPE 

Introduction 157 

Natural  Regions 158 

Coast  Line '.  162 

Influence  of  the  Ice-Sheets   .     .  162 

Climate 163 

Natural  Resources      .     .     .     .     .  163 

British  Isles 164 

Norway  and  Sweden 170 

Denmark 174 

Iceland 175 

The  Netherlands 175 

Belgium 177 

Luxemburg 179 

Prance 180 

Switzerland 187 

Germany 189 

Austria 193 

Hungary 194 

Czechoslovakia 195 

Poland 196 

Baltic  States 197 

Finland 197 

Russia 198 

Trans-Caucasian  Republics           .      .  200 

White  Russia 200 

Ukraine 202 

Rumania      ...          202 

Mediterranean  Lands     ....  203 

Spain 204 

Portugal     . 206 

Italy 207 

Jugoslavia 213 

iii 


PAGE 

Albania 213 

Bulgaria 214 

Greece 214 

Turkey 215 

Comparative  Map  Studies  .     .     .  216 

AFRICA 

Introduction 217 

Natural  Regions 220 

Climate 220 

Vegetation  and  Animal  Life       .  221 

Natural  Resources 221 

Egypt 222 

British  Possessions 223 

French  Possessions       225 

Other  European  Possessions  .     .  228 

Liberia  and  Abyssinia    ....  229 

Comparative  Map  Studies  .     .     .  230 

ASIA 

Natural  Regions 231 

Climate 234 

Countries  of  Southwestern  Asia  235 

Countries  of  West-Central  Asia  239 

Siberia 240 

The  Republic  of  China  ....  242 

Japan 246 

Indo-China 249 

The  Malay  States 251 

India 252 

Small  Countries  in  the  Himalaya 

Mountains 254 

East  Indies 255 

Comparative  Map  Studies  .     .     .  256 

AUSTRALIA,  NEW   ZEALAND, 
AND  PACIFIC   ISLANDS 

Australia 257 

New  Zealand 263 

Pacific  Islands 264 

Comparative  Map  Studies  .  '  .     .  265 

POLAR  REGIONS 

North  Polar  Region 266 

South  Polar  Region 266 


5Kr,7:lG 


CONTENTS 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


World  Geography 267 

The  Earth  in  the  Universe    .     .     276 

THE   UNITED   STATES  — A 
WORLD   POWER 

Introduction 277 

Natural  Resources  of  the  United 

States 278 

Soils 278 

Forests 284 

Mineral  Resources 286 

Water 295 

Fisheries 297 

Industries    Dependent    upon   Im- 
ported Haw  Materials      .     299 

Inland  Commerce 300 

Foreign  Commerce 302 

Summary  and  Conclusion    .     .     .     304 

APPENDIX 

Reference  Books i 

Geographical  Explorations  .  .  ii,  iii 
World  Production  Maps  .  .  .  iv,  v 
Great  Trade  Routes  ....  vi,  vii 
Tables  of  Area  and  Population  viii 
Index  and  Pronunciations  ...        xi 


INDEX  OF  MAPS 

Maps  in  Colors 

Africa,    Physical    (showing   Natural 

Regions) 218 

Africa,  Political  and  Economic    .      .  227 

Africa,  Rainfall  and  Population  .      .  230 

Africa,  Colored  Relief  and  Vegetation  230 

Alaska,  Political  and  Economic  .  .  84 
Asia,    Physical     (showing    Natural 

Regions) 232 

Asia, 'The  Near  East,  Political  and 

Economic 237 

Asia,  The   Far  East,   Political   and 

Economic 247 

Asia,  Political  and  Economic       .     .  250 

Asia,  Rainfall  and  Population     .     .  256 

Asia,  Colored  Relief  and  Vegetation  256 
Australia,  Physical  (showing  Natural 

Regions) 258 

Australia,  Political  and  Economic    .  260 

Australia,  Rainfall  and  Population  .  265 


l'AGF 

Australia,  Colored  Relief  and  Vege-" 

tation 265 

Canada,  Political  and  Economic  .      .      107 

Central  America,  Political  and  Eco- 
nomic       118,  119 

Europe,  Physical  (showing  Natural 

Regions) 1G1 

Europe,  North  Sea  Countries,  Polit- 
ical and  Economic       .      .     .      .      171 

Europe,  Central,  Political  and  Eco- 
nomic       182,  183 

Europe,  Eastern,  Political  and  Eco- 
nomic       201 

Europe,  Mediterranean  SeaCountrics, 

Political  and  Economic   .      .  208,  209 

Europe,  Rainfall  and  Population       .      216 

Europe,  Colored  Relief  and  Vegeta- 
tion  216 

Hawaiian  Islands,  Political  and  Eco- 
nomic       84 

Mexico,  Political  and  Economic  .  118, 119 

North   America,  Physical    (showing 

Natural  Regions) 122 

North  America,  Rainfall  and  Popu- 
lation       124 

North  America,  Colored  Relief  and 

Vegetation 124 

Philippine  Islands,  Political  and  Eco- 
nomic       93 

Polar  Regions 266 

South    America,   Physical   (showing 

Natural  Regions) 126 

South    America,    Northern    Section, 

Political  and  Economic    .      .      .      135 

South    America,    Southern    Section, 

Political  and  Economic    .      .      .      145 

South  America,  Rainfall  and  Popu- 
lation       156 

South  America,  Colored  Relief  and 

Vegetation 156 

United    States,    Physical    (showing 

Natural  Regions) 2,  3 

United  States,  Sectional  Maps,  Polite 
ical  and  Economic 
New  England  States  ....  13 
Southern  States,  Eastern  Section  .  23 
Southern  States,  Western  Section  25 
Middle  Atlantic  States  ....  35 
Central  States,  Eastern  Section  .  45 
Central  States,  Western  Section  .  55 
Northwestern  States  ....  73 
Southwestern  States        ....        76 

United  States,  Rainfall  and  Popula- 
tion     82 

United  States,   Colored    Relief   and 

Vegetation 82 


PAGE 

United  States,  Political      ...      96,  97 
West    Indies,     Political     and     Eco- 
nomic   118,  119 

World  Maps 

Average  Annual  Rainfall    .      .      .     275 

Ocean  Currents 275 

Geographical  Explorations        .    Plate  A 
Great  Trade  Routes  ....     Plate  B 


BLACK-AND-WHITE    MAPS 

Africa 

Valley  of  the  Nile 

223 

Asia 

Relief  Drawing  of  Palestine     . 

236 

Europe 

Extent  of  Continental  Ice-Sheet    . 

168 

North  America 

Extent  of  Continental  Ice-Sheet 

10 

Panama  Canal  Zone 

89 

United  States 

Cattle-Producing  Areas  . 

283 

Coal  Resources 

287 

Corn-Producing  Areas    . 

278 

Cotton-Producing  Areas 

282 

Forest  Areas    . 

2S4 

Gold  and  Silver  Resources  . 

293 

Iron  and  Copper  Resources 

289 

Lead  and  Zinc  Resources    . 

292 

Northeastern  Industrial  District  . 

21 

Oil  and  Gas  Resources  .... 

288 

Sheep-Producing  Areas  .... 

283 

Sugar-Producing  Areas  . 

279 

Territorial  Expansion    .... 

99 

Westward  Movement  of  Population 

98 

Wheat-Producing  Areas 

279 

World  Maps 

Cattle-Producing  Regions    . 

iv 

Coal-Producing  Regions 

V 

Cotton-Producing  Regions  . 

V 

Iron-Producing  Regions 

V 

299 

WheatrProducing  Regions  . 

iv 

AVool-Producing  Regions     . 

iv 

World  Temperature  Maps  . 

268 

Aeroplane  Drawings 

Boston 9 

Chicago 50 

London 167 

New  York  City 30 

Paris 185 

Philadelphia 32 

Pittsburgh 33 

Rio  de  Janeiro 133 

San  Francisco 79 

Washington 101 


NEW  GEOGRAPHY 

NORTH  AMERICA 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


During  the  last  hundred  years  the  United  States 
of  America  has  become  one  of  the  busiest  nations  in 
the  world.  In  every  state,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  and  from  the  Canadian  boundary  to  the  Mexican 
frontier,  most  of  the  people  are  very  busily  engaged 
in  some  kind  of  work.  Their  occupations  and  many  of 
their  customs  depend  chiefly  upon  the  geographic  con- 
ditions in  the  regions  where  they  live. 

We  are  a  hopeful  and  enthusiastic  people.  We  look 
forward  to  having  better  homes,  more  beautiful  churches, 
and  better  schools.  We  want  the  people  in  the  country 
to  enjoy  the  advantages  of  good  roads,  mail  service,  the 
telephone,  and  many  other  comforts,  and  we  look  for 
better  living  and  working  conditions  in  the  cities. 

Every  boy  and  every  girl  in  this  country  has  an 
opportunity  to  rise  to  a  position  of  great  responsibility. 
The  schools  are  open  to  all,  and  everyone  who  is  able 
and  willing  to  work  hard  may  have  the  advantages 
of  the  highest  and  best  education.  Each  one  will  ha\e 
the  responsibility  of  citizenship  in  a  great  nation. 

To  fulfill  the  responsibility  of  citizenship,  to  help  the 
home  community,  the  state,  and  the  nation,  each  one 
of  us  should  understand  the  geography  of  this  country ; 
and  at  this  time,  when  the  United  States  of  America  is 
taking  a  larger  and  larger  part  in  affairs  of  world-wide 
importance,  it  is  more  necessary  than  ever  before  that 
we  know  also  the  geography  of  other  countries. 


Variety  in  physical  and  human  geography.  Some 
parts  of  the  United  States  are  warm  and  other  parts 
are  cold ;  some  are  well  watered  and  forested,  others 
have  a  moderate  rainfall  and  are  grasslands ;  and  still 
others  are  very  dry.  In  some  sections  of  the  country 
there  are  plains,  in  some  parts  there  are  plateaus,  and 
in  other  parts  there  are  mountains.  See  map  opposite 
page  82.  Vast  areas  of  rich  soils  have  led  to  farming, 
and  the  extensive  grasslands  have  invited  many  to 
raise  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep.  The  wonderful  supplies 
of  coal,  oil,  gas,  and  water-power,  together  with  iron, 
copper,  lead,  and  zinc,  have  made  possible  a  most  re- 
markable industrial  development.  People  living  on  the 
coast,  where  there  are  good  harbors,  have  very  natu- 
rally become  interested  in  commerce,  and  throughout 
the  land  many  are  engaged  in  trade  and  transportation. 
Because  the  physical  geography  differs  so  widely  in  the 
many  sections,  the  human  geography  varies  also. 

Natural  regions.  For  purposes  of  study,  which  should 
lead  to  an  understanding  of  -geography,  the  United  States 
is  divided  into  natural  regions.  See  map  on  pages  2  and  3. 

A  natural  region  is  a  portion  of  the  earth's  surface 
throughout  which  the  geographic  conditions  which  help 
to  determine  life  do  not  differ  greatly.  When  a  natural 
region  is  very  large,  the  climate  in  the  distant  parts 
will  differ,  and  this  difference  must  be  considered  in 
explaining  the  life  of  the  region. 


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NATURAL  REGIONS 


MAP  STUDIES  — NATURAL  REGIONS  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  (Pages  2,  3) 

1.  Where  are  the  young,  rugged  mountains  of  the  United 
States  ?  the  old,  worn-down  mountains  ?  2.  Name  and  locate 
the  three  large  regions  of  plains  in  the  United  States. 

3.  The  longest  river  in  the  world  is  on  this  map.  Which 
one  is  it  ?  See  tables  in  Appendix.  4.  The  greatest  system  of 
fresh-water  lakes  in  the  world  is  on  this  map.    Make  a  list  of 


Fig.  1.    This  steam  plow  is  turning  over  the  rich  soil  in  the  Great  Plains. 

Notice  the  gently  rolling  country  and  contrast  it  with  the  Rocky  Mountains 

region  shown  in  Fig.  2.    Are  any  states  entirely  within  the  Great  Plains  ? 

What  states  are  partly  included  in  them  ? 

the  lakes.  5.  In  what  mountains  is  the  Continental  Divide  ? 
6.  Can  one  go  by  water  from  Chicago  or  Duluth  to  Europe  ? 
Describe  the  route.  7.  The  waters  from  what  lakes  flow  over 
Niagara  Falls  ?    See  page  41,  Fig.  74. 

8.  What  nations  sent  explorers  to  this  country  ?  See  Appen- 
dix, Plate  A.  Where  did  they  go  ?  9.  What  nation  sent  the 
men  who  sailed  down  the  Mississippi  River  ?  Who  explored 
the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  River  ? 

10.  Learn  to  locate  each  of  the  natural  regions.  The  Appa- 
lachian Plateau,  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  the  Piedmont 
Belt,  and  the  Coastal  Hilly  Belt  make  up  the  region  which  is 
known  as  the  Appalachian  Highlands. 

11.  Make  a  list  of  the  natural  regions,  giving  the  general 
elevation  of  each  above  sea  level.  12.  Which  one  of  the 
western  plateaus  has,  in  general,  the  higher  elevation  ? 
13.  Where  is  the  greatest  delta  on  this  map? 

14.  Suppose  the  sea  withdrew  to  the  edge  of  the  continen- 
tal shelf,  where  the  water  is  now  100  fathoms  deep,  what 
states  would  be  enlarged?  15.  What  parts  of  the  United 
States  have  good  harbors?  16.  Trace  the  southern  limit  of 
continental  glaciation  (ice  action)  on  this  map.  Through 
what  states  does  it  pass  ?    See  page  10,  Fig.  14. 

17.  North  of  that  line  the  land  in  the  United  States,  ex- 
cept in  the  driftless  area  of  Wisconsin  and  neighboring  states, 
has  been  covered  by  glacial  ice.  South  of  that  line  in  the  high 
mountains  there  were  also  glaciers.  We  must  frequently  refer 
to  this  line,  for  the  surface  features,  soils,  streams,  and  lakes 
north  and  south  of  it  differ  very  greatly. 


18.  The  routes  of  migration  westward  were  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  settlement  and  development  of  this  country. 
Frequent  reference  will  be  made  to  them  in  the  text.  Trace 
each  one  on  the  map.  19.  What  city  has  grown  up  where 
many  of  the  western  routes  left  the  Missouri  River? 

20.  What  was  the  easiest  route  through  the  Appalachian 
Mountains?  21.  Which  of  the  western  routes  avoided  most 
of  the  mountains  ?  22.  Which  of  the  western  routes  had  the 
least  desert  country  ?    See  map  opposite  page  82. 

23.  What  natural  regions  are  crossed  by  the  parallel  of  40° 
north  latitude  ?  24.  What  two  states  are  separated  by  that 
parallel  ?  25.  In  what  natural  region  is  Great  Salt  Lake  ? 
Yellowstone  National  Park  ?  the  Grand  Canyon  ?  Mount 
Mitchell  ?  Pikes  Peak  ?  Mount  Whitney  ? 

26.  In  what  region  does  the  Mississippi  River  rise  ?  the 
Rio  Grande  ?   the  Colorado  River  ?    the  Tennessee  River  ? 


3  R.  E.  Marblt 

Fig.  2.  Glacier  National  Park,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  Montana,  has  been 

set  aside  by  our  government  as  a  vacation  land  for  the  people.   It  is  a  region 

of  rugged  mountains  with  glacier-covered  peaks  and  heavily  wooded  slopes. 

In  the  valleys  between  the  mountains  are  beautiful  glacial  lakes 

27.  In  what  region  does  the  Arkansas  River  rise  ?  28.  What 
peak  in  Maine  is  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  Mont  Blanc, 
France  ?    See  eastern  margin  of  map. 

29.  What  mountains  in  New  York  are  about  one  degree 
farther  north  than  Mount  Vesuvius,  Italy  ?  30.  Are  the  New 
England  states  and  New  York  in  the  latitude  of  northern 
Europe  or  southern  Europe  ? 

Note  to  Teacher.  Most  of  the  fundamental  facts  of  land  forms, 
water  bodies,  and  the  work  of  streams,  winds,  and  glacial  ice  have  been 
learned  by  the  pupil  in  his  study  of  Book  I,  and  this  knowledge  should 
be  applied  in  answering  the  questions  on  this  page.  For  example,  since 
he  has  already  studied  "  Divides,"  he  can,  with  the  help  of  the  key  in 
the  corner  of  the  map,  locate  and  trace  the  Continental  Divide  and 
interpret  the  meaning  of  the  term. 

The  thirty  questions  given  above  are  merely  suggestive  of  the  use 
which  should  be  made  of  this,  the  first  map  in  the  book.  The  teacher 
should  formulate  many  more  questions  on  this  regional  map  and  should 
devote  several  class  periods  to  a  thorough  discussion  of  all  its  features. 
Continual  reference  to  this  map  is  made  throughout  the  entire  study  of 
the  United  States. 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Fig.  3.  This  is  Lake  Sunapee  in  New  Hampshire,  one  of  the  thousands 
of  beautiful  lakes  which  are  scattered  among  the  hills  and  mountains  of 
New  England.  Notice  its  irregular  shape,  its  islands  and  wooded  shores, 
and  the  cleared  land  surrounding  the  farmhouse  at  the  right.  In  the  distance 


beyond  the  lake  you  can  see  the  rolling  upland  country  of  the  old,  worn- 
down  Appalachians.    What  do  the  people  of  this  region  do  for  a  living  ? 
Can  you  explain  why  farming  is  difficult  in  this  part  of  New  England  ? 
Why  are  there  so  many  lakes  in  New  England  ?   Of  what  use  are  they  ? 


NORTHERN  DIVISION  OF  THE  APPALACHIAN 
HIGHLANDS 

New  Exglaxd 

In  this  portion  of  the  United  States,  farming,  lum- 
bering, and  fishing  were  formerly  the  chief  occupations, 
but  now  New  England  is  a  great  manufacturing  district. 
There  must  be  some  good  reason  for  such  a  change. 

Natural  resources.  Use  map  on  page  13.  There  are  ex- 
cellent harbors  on  the  New  England  coast,  and  offshore, 
in  the  cold,  shallow  waters,  fish  have  always  been  abun- 
dant. Forests  once  covered  most  of  this  region,  and 
there  are  still  extensive  forests  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Vermont.  Recently  the 
United  States  government  has  established  a  national 
forest  in  the  White  Moun- 
tains, and  much  of  the  land 
in  that  part  of  New  Hamp- 
shire is  being  purchased  by 
the  government  and  will  be 
reforested.  Almost  every 
farm  in  New  England  has 
a  wood-lot  which  supplies 
fuel  for  the  home. 

The  broad,  flat  areas  of 
the  Connecticut  River  Low- 
land are  the  most  extensive 
farm  lands  in  this  region 
(Fig.  4),  but  the  lowlands 
bordering  Lake  Champlain 
in  Vermont  also  have  fertile 
soils.    In  each  of  the  New 


■HHHb* 

Fig.  4.    Much  tobacco  is  grown  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Connecticut 

River  Lowland.    The  stalks  are  cut  and  hung  on  racks  like  this  to  wiit 

in  the  sun.   Then  they  are  taken  to  the  barns  and  dried.   The  Connecticut 

valley  tobacco  is  r  ;ed  chiefly  for  making  wrappers  for  cigars 


England  states  there  are  many  areas  of  good  soils,  although 
much  of  the  land  is  too  hilly  or  too  stony  for  farming. 

The  rock  formations  (such  as  granite,  marble,  lime- 
stone, sandstone,  and  slate)  of  which  the  hills  and 
mountains  are  made,  and  often  the  bowlders  scattered 
about  on  the  surface,  are  used  as  building  materials. 
Much  of  the  United  States  depends  upon  New  England 
for  granite  and  marble. 

The  seashore,  the  islands,  the  many  beautiful  lakes 
(Fig.  3),  and  the  mountains  serve  as  summer  resorts. 
They  attract  thousands  of  visitors  each  year,  and  in  a 
country  where  so  many  people  live  and  work  in  large 
cities,  such  vacation  grounds  are  a  real  natural  resource 
of  ever-increasing  value.  Many  of  the  lakes  serve  as 
reservoirs  for  city  water  supplies,  others  furnish  ice,  and 

in    many    there    are    good 
supplies  of  fish. 

Another  natural  resource 
of  very  great  importance, 
and  one  that  helps  to  ex- 
plain why  New  England  has 
become  a  manufacturing 
district,  is  the  water-power. 
Most  of  the  streams,  large 
and  small,  have  falls  or 
rapids  in  their  courses,  and 
in  those  places  dams  have 
been  constructed  and  mills 
have  been  erected.  Many 
great  plants  have  been  built 
to  transform  the  water- 
power  into  electric  power. 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Fig.  5.    Dairy  herds  like  this  are  a  very  common  sight  in  New  England. 

In  summer  the  cows  graze  over  the  grassy  hillsides,  but  in  winter  they  are 

fed  indoors.    The  great  cities  of  New  England  demand  large  quantities  of 

milk  and  butter,  and  make  dairying  profitable  for  the  farmer 

Even  the  Connecticut  River,  the  largest  stream  in  New 
England,  is  used  to  generate  electricity.  In  several  places 
a  small  stream  has  been  dammed  to  generate  electricity 
on  a  farm,  so  that  the  farmer  may  light  his  home  and 
run  machines  with  the  power  generated  by  the  little 
stream  that  flows  over  his  land. 

Climate.  The  rainfall  in  this  region  is  enough  for 
agriculture  and  for  tree  growth,  and  it  is  evenly  dis- 
i  tributed ;  that  is,  about  the  same  amount  falls  each 
month. 

The  amount  that  falls  in  a  year  in  New  England  is 
about  45  inches.  See  map  on  page  82.  In  any  land 
where  the  rainfall  is  over  80  inches  a  year,  as  in  the 
Amazon  Basin,  there  is  a  very  wet  climate.  In  places 
where  the  rainfall  is  less  than  20  inches,  as  in  some  of 
our  Western  states,  agriculture  is  unsafe  without  the  help 
of  irrigation.  In  the  great  deserts  of  the  world  the  rain- 
fall is  less  than  1 0  inches  a  year,  and  in  some,  notably  the 
Atacama  Desert  of  northern  Chile,  it  is  almost  nothing. 


Often  during  the  winter  in  New  England  there  are 
very  heavy  snows,  and  though  they  cause  much  extra 
work  and  much  inconvenience,  they  are  a  great  pleasure 
to  all  who  enjoy  the  winter  landscape.  The  trees  to  be 
used  for  lumber  are  cut  during  the  winter,  and  the  logs 
are  drawn  over  the  snow  to  the  streams.  When  spring 
comes,  the  melting  snows  furnish  water  to  the  lakes  and 
streams.  These  waters  carry  the  logs  to  the  mills,  and 
there  help  to  turn  the  wheels  that  generate  power. 

Moisture  in  the  air  is  very  helpful  in  the  spinning  of 
cotton,  and  thus  the  climate  of  New  England  favors  the 
development  of  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  textile 
industries  (Fig.  7). 

The  average  summer  temperature  is  about  70  degrees, 
and  during  the  winter  the  average  temperature  is  about 
30  degrees.  Temperatures  as  low  as  40  degrees  below 
zero  are,  however,  not  unknown  to  people  in  this  part 
of  the  country. 

Such  a  climate,  with  large  seasonal  changes,  forces  the 
people  to  look  ahead  and  provide  for  the  future.  New 
Englanders  must  build  good,  substantial  houses,  and,  in 
order  that  their  homes  may  be  warm  during  the  winter 
months,  they  must  lay  in  supplies  of  fuel.  Much  of  the 
food  raised  in  the  summer,  such  as  potatoes  and  other 
vegetables,  is  put  away  for  winter  use,  and  during  the 
winter  months  enough  ice  is  cut  and  stored  away  to  last 
for  the  next  summer.  In  this  way  the  climate  tends  to 
make  people  vigorous. 

Home  work.  1.  Find  out  how  many  inches  of  rain  fall  in  your 
home  district  each  year.  For  what  crops  is  it  sufficient  ?  Com- 
pare that  amount  with  the  amount  that  falls  in  New  England  each 
year.   2.  Read  about  the  life  in  a  logging  camp  in  the  Maine  woods. 

Note  to  Teacher.  The  home  work  planned  in  this  book  may 
often  serve  as  library  or  desk  work  in  school.  In  many  cases  it  may 
be  best  to  assign  certain  problems  or  exercises  to  individual  pupils  or 
to  committees  to  report  upon.    Encourage  oral  reports  in  class. 


Fig.  6.  This  is  one  of  the  great  manufacturing  plants  at  Manchester,  New 
Hampshire.  It  is  located  on  the  Merrimack  River  at  a  point  where  a  water- 
fall occurs  and  provides  power  to  run  the  machinery.  This  one  mill  turns 
out  over  two  hundred  million  yards  of  cotton  and  worsted  cloth  each  year. 


Water-power  is  a  very  valuable  natural  resource.  Years  ago  it  could  be  used 

only  to  turn  the  mill  wheels  directly,  but  now  the  falling  water  i3  made 

to  generate  electricity,  and  this  hydroelectric  power  can  be  transmitted 

over  great  cables  for  use  in  factories  which  are  hundreds  of  miles  away 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Fig.  7.  Fall  River,  Massachusetts,  is  one  of  the  largest  cotton-manufacturing 
cities  in  the  United  States.  The  city  has  water-power,  but  not  enough  for  the 
industry  ;  most  of  the  mills  use  steam  power.  Fall  River  has  a  safe,  almost 
landlocked,  harbor,  deep  enough  for  large  passenger  vessels  and  freighters. 

Advantages  for  manufacturing, —  summary.  The  loca- 
tion of  New  England  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  its  many 
excellent  harbors  and  its  numerous  rapid  streams  so 
well  supplied  with  falls,  the  moist  air,  an  invigorating 
climate,  and  a  distribution  of  rainfall  which  supplies 
streams  and  reservoirs  with  water  throughout  the  year, 
are  factors  which  have  made  possible  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  manufacturing. 

The  construction  of  railroads  and  the  improvement 
in  steamship  service  have  greatly  assisted  the  industrial 
growth.  Thousands  of  people  have  come  to  New  England 
to  work  in  the  mills  and  factories. 

Settlements  and  occupations.  The  Pilgrims  first  landed 
near  the  tip  end  of  Cape  Cod,  where  Provincetown  is 
located,  but  they  soon  sailed  across  the  bay  and  estab- 
lished their  first  settlement  at  Plymouth.  Each  of  the 
good  harbors  along  the  New  England  coast  attracted 
settlers,  and  the  largest  coast  cities  have  developed  near 
the  best  harbors. 

Some  of  the  streams  are  navigable  (see  map,  p.  13), 
and  at  the  head  of  navigation  other  settlements  were 
started,  such  as  Augusta  and  Bangor  in  Maine. 

The  settlers  who  undertook  farming  needed  trading 
centers  where  they  could  sell  their  products  and  buy 
their  supplies,  and  towns  soon  began  to  appear  in  the 
better  agricultural  parts  of  the  region. 

Little  by  little  each  of  the  seaports  and  each  of  the 
settlements  increased  in  size.  Lumbering  and  shipbuild- 
ing were  undertaken,  and  many  engaged  in  fishing.  As 
ships  becanle  available  and  there  were  fish  and  lumber  to 
use  in  trade,  some  commerce  was  undertaken ;  and  from 
those  early  days  to  the  present  time  the  New  England 
people  have  become  more  and  more  interested  in  and 
dependent  upon  commerce. 


Locate  Fall  River  on  your  map.   How  do  the  manufacturers  get  coal  to  make 

steam  for  their  mills  ?   Where  does  the  raw  cotton  come  from  ?  Where  do 

most  of  the  manufactured  cotton  goods  go  ?   Explain  why  New  England  is 

one  of  the  two  great  cotton-manufacturing  centers  of  the  United  States 

The  mills  demanded  raw  materials,  and  in  response  the 
ships  brought  large  quantities  of  cotton  from  the  South- 
ern states.  Later,  vessels  brought  cotton  from  Egypt  to 
be  manufactured  into  cloth  in  New  England.  Wool  was 
first  furnished  from  the  sheep  raised  in  the  New  England 
pastures.  To-day  wool  is  brought  to  Boston  from  all 
the  leading  sheep-raising  countries  of  the  world.  The 
small  mills  were  increased  in  size,  until  now  the  New 
England  mills  are  immense  structures  (Figs.  6,  8). 

With  the  introduction  of  railroads  more  raw  materials 
were  brought  to  this  part  of  the  country,  food  supplies 
were  imported  from  the  great  agricultural  districts  in 
the  interior  of  the  United  States,  and  the  manufactured 
articles  of  New  England  were  sent  west  and  south  to 
markets  that  increased  rapidly  in  number  and  in  size. 


Fig.  8.  Here  are  the  great  woolen  mills  at  Lawrence,  Massachusetts,  on 
the  Merrimack  River.  The  Merrimack  turns  more  factory  wheels  than  any 
other  river  in  the  world.  What  other  cities  along  this  river  have  impor- 
tant water-power  development  ?  Where  do  the  woolen  manufacturers  at 
Lawrence  get  their  raw  wool  ? 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Fig.  9.    This  is  a  steamship  and  railroad  terminal  at  Portland,  Maine.    In  the  center,  along  the 

wharves,  are  the  railroad  tracks  and  the  great  storage  warehouses.   Can  you  explain  the  advantage 

of  such  an  arrangement  as  this  ?   Portland  is  the  largest  city  in  Maine,  with  an  excellent  harbor, 

deep  enough  for  the  largest  vessels.   What  are  the  chief  exports  and  imports  of  Portland  ? 


New  Bedford,  Fall  River  (Fig.  7),  and 
Providence  are  at  the  heads  of  bays. 
The  first  two  are  important  centers  for 
the  manufacture  of  cotton  goods,  and 
they  depend  largely  upon  ocean  traffic, 
but  Providence  is  far  inland  and  is 
making  more  and  more  use  of  railroad 
service.  It  is  one  of  the  leading  cities 
for  the  manufacture  of  silverware  and 
brass  ware.  New  Haven  and  Bridgeport 
are  busy  manufacturing  centers  on  the 
coast  of  Connecticut.  Hartford  is  an 
important  industrial  city  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Connecticut  River. 

With  the  .development  of  railroads 
much  of  the  trade  between  the  coast 
cities,  wbich  was  formerly  dependent 

upon  shipping  by  water,  is  now  carried  on  by  rail.    This 

often  saves  a  great  deal  of  time. 


The  manufacture  of  shoes,  which  began  in  a  small  way, 
has  become  a  very  large  industry.    Hardware,  cutlery, 

watches,  and  many  kinds  of  jewelry  are  made  on  a  large  Vermont  has  no  seacoast,  but  its  largest  city,  Burling- 

scale.    The  lumbering  and  shipbuilding  have  continued,  ton,  has  a  good  harbor  on  Lake  Champlain.    Burlington 

but  now  many  of  the  vessels  are  made  of  steel.    Much  has  a  large  lumber  trade. 

of  the  wood  of  the  forests  is  being  made  into  pulp  and  A  second  group  of  cities  in  New  England  owe  their  loca- 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  tion  to  water-power  sites.  See  map  on  page  13.  Begin- 
In  time  tbe  water-power  proved  insufficient,  so  coal  ning  again  at  the  north,  we  find  Lewiston  and  Auburn  on 
was  brought,  chiefly  from  Pennsylvania,  in  order  that  opposite  banks  of  the  Androscoggin  River,  where  there 
more  mills  and  more  factories  could  be  built,  and  that  is  water-power.  Near  the  mouth  of  the  Saco  are  Bidde- 
all  of  them  could  run  throughout  the  year.  ford  and  Saco,  another  pair  of  cities  on  opposite  sides  of  a 


Home  work.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States  color  in 
the  boundaries  of  the  New  England  states ;  print  in  the  abbre- 
viations of  the  state  names ;  add  the  names  of  the  capitals  and 
chief  seaports.  Keep  this  map  and  add  to  it  as  the  study  of  the 
United  States  proceeds. 

Location  and  growth  of  cities.  Use  map  on  page  13. 
Those  settlements  that  were  so  fortunate  as  to  be  located 
on  good  harbors  or  on  navigable  rivers  have  become 
important  commercial  centers.  Beginning  at  the  north 
we  find  Bangor  and  Augusta.  They  have  the  advantage  of 
being  seaports  and  also  of  being  inland  cities  surrounded 
by  productive  lands.  Lumbering  has  helped  to  develop 
these  cities,  for  they  are  near  the  forests. 

Portland  has  an  excellent  harbor  and  has  become 
one  of  the  chief  seaports  of  New  England  (Fig.  9). 
Portsmouth  is  the  leading  seaport  of  New  Hampshire. 
Gloucester,  on  a  very  good  harbor  near  Cape  Ann,  is  an 
important  fishing  port  (Fig.  10). 

Boston,  the  largest  city  in  this  group  of  states,  and 
the  capital  of  Massachusetts,  has  one  of  the  best  harbors 
in  the  United  States.  This  seaport  has  the  advantage 
of  being  nearer  the  great  European  coast  cities  than 
New  York.  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  or  any  other  Amer- 
ican port  farther  south  on  the  Atlantic  coast  (Fig.  11). 


stream,  where  there  is. power  available.  Lowell,  Lawrence 
(Fig.  8),  Nashua,  Manchester,  and  Concord  all  depend 
in  part  upon  the  Merrimack  River  for  power  (Fig.  6). 
Holyoke    is    located    where    there    are    rapids    in    the 


Detroit  Pub.  Co. 


Fig.  10.  This  is  a  codfish-drying  yard  at  Gloucester,  Massachusetts.  A  great 

many  of  the  people  of  the  town  are  engaged  in  the  fishing  industry.   Some 

of  them  catch  the  fish,  others  cure  and  salt  it,  and  still  others  buy  and  sell  it. 

Massachusetts  salt  cod  is  sent  all  over  the  world 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Connecticut  River, 
and  power  was  se- 
cured by  damming 
the  stream.  This  city 
manufactures  most  of 
the  high-grade  paper 
made  in  the  United 
States.  AtPawtucket. 
Rhode  Island,  at  Nor- 
wich, in  Connecticut, 
and  in  numerous 
other  places  in  the 
New  England  states, 
water-power  has  been 
developed  for  manu- 
facturing purposes. 

Often  the  water- 
power  is  used  to 
generate  electricity, 
and  that  form  of 
energy  is  sent  over 
wires  for  miles  and 
miles,  so  that  distant 
cities  are  furnished 
with  electricity  for 
lighting,  for  use  as 
power  in  factories, 
and  for  running  the 
trolley  cars. 

A  third  group  of 
cities  (and  they  are 

chiefly  inland  cities)  may  easily  be  remembered  by  asso- 
ciating with  the  name  of  the  city  the  particular  industry 
which  has  been  developed  there  on  a  large  scale. 

In  the   north,   Millinocket  (Fig.  12)  and   Rumford,   in 
Maine,  are  engaged  in  making  paper  from  wood  pulp. 


n  and  Company 

Fig.  11.  This  is  an  aeroplane  drawing  of  Boston.  Describe  the  country  surrounding  Boston.  What  rivers  enter  Boston 
Harbor  ?  What  are  the  good  features  of  the  harbor  ?  Boston  imports  more  wool,  hides,  and  skins  than  any  other  port  in  the 
world.  For  what  are  they  used  ?  Boston  is  the  leading  fish  market  of  the  United  States.  What  does  Boston  export  ?  How 
does  Boston  rank  in  size  among  the  cities  of  the  United  States  ?  See  tables  in  Appendix.  What  places  of  special  historic 
interest  are  shown  in  the  drawing  ?  Lynn  is  best  known  for  shoes,  Waltham  for  watches,  and  Quincy  for  granite.  Harvard 
University  and  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  are  in  Cambridge.  Wellesley  College,  for  women,  is  located  on  the 
shore  of  a  small  lake  in  the  town  of  Wellesley,  shown  at  the  western  margin  of  the  sketch 


Barre,  Vermont,  has  wonderful  quarries  in  great  hills  of 
granite.  Proctor  and  Rutland,  in  the  same  state,  produce 
large  quantities  of  marble. 

Brockton,  Lynn,  and  Haverhill,  in  Massachusetts,  manu- 
facture more  boots  and  shoes  than  any  other  three  cities 
in  the  United  States.  Worcester  is  best  known  for  its 
iron  and  steel  works.  It  has  large  wire  mills  and  many 
machine  shops.  Springfield  is  a  prosperous  city  in  the 
Connecticut  valley  and  is  an  important  center  for  the 
manufacture  of  cars,  automobiles,  and  firearms. 

Waterbury  and  Ansonia  in  Connecticut  are  best  known 
for  their  brassware.  New  Britain  is  noted  for  the  manu- 
facture of  hardware,  'Willimantic  for  cotton  manufactur- 
ing, and  South  Manchester  for  silk  manufacturing. 

Woonsocket,  in  Rhode  Island,  has  excellent  water-power 
and  is  an  important  center  for  woolen  manufacture. 

Home  work.  On  an  outline  map  place  the  imports  and  exports 
of  any  city  in  which  you  are  especially  interested.  The  Chamber 
of  Commerce  of  that  city  will  usually  furnish  you  the  necessary 
information.  As  the  study  progresses  this  exercise  could  well  be 
reneated  for  several  cities  and  certainly  for  the  home  town. 


Iitrn  t  aper  Company 

Fig.  12.   The  town  of  Millinocket,  Maine,  has  grown  up  around  the  largest 

papar  mills  in  the  world.    At  the  left  are  the  great  piles  of  spruce  wood 

ready  to  be  ground  into  pulp.   In  the  center  is  the  main  office  building  of 

the  plant.   Explain  the  location  of  this  industry  here 


10 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Explanation  op  New  England  Scenery 

Mountain-making.  Long,  long  ago  the  rocks  in  this 
part  of  the  continent  were  subjected  to  a  very  great 
amount  of  pressure.  They  were  folded  and  forced  high 
into  the  air.  That  made  mountains  throughout  most  if 
not  all  of  New  England. 

Wearing  down.  Rains,  winds,  changes  of  temperature, 
freezing  of  water  in  the  cracks  of  rocks,  helped  to  break 

up  the  mountain 
tops,  as  the  rocks 
are  being  broken 
up  on  the  top  of 
Mount  Washing- 
ton and  all  high 
mountains  to-day. 
Little  by  little, 
streams  cut  their 
valleys  deeper  and 
deeper,  and  took 
the  loose  material 
away  to  the  sea. 
A  long  period  fol- 
lowed, when  the 
land  was  being 
worn  down  and 
the  high  moun- 
tains were  reduced 
to  low  mountains 
or  to  hills. 

Ice  invasion.  While  the  streams  were  at  work  cutting 
down  the  highlands  a  more  remarkable  thing  happened. 
A  great  ice-sheet  formed  on  the  land  east  of  Hudson  Bay 
(Fig.  14).  For  years  more  snow  fell  each  winter  in  that 
region  than  melted  in  the  following  summer.  Thus  a 
great  snowbank  was  formed.  In  the  bottom  of  that  snow- 
bank, as  the  snow  was  compressed,  ice  was  formed,  in 
much  the  same  way  as  ice  is  formed  when  you  press 
a  snowball  in  your  hands.  In  time  the  huge  ice  mass 
began  to  move.  As  it  advanced  it  gathered  stones  and 
rocks  and  soil,  so  that  when  it  came  into  New  Eno-land 
it  was  rock  shod.  As  it  moved  southward  it  wore  off 
the  hill-tops  and  broadened  the  valleys  (Fig.  15). 

This  great  ice-sheet  covered  even  the  highest  moun- 
tains in  New  England.  On  the  top  of  Mount  Washington 
there  are  stones  that  the  ice-sheet  left  there,  and  on  the 
top  of  Mount  Monadnock,  in  southern  New  Hampshire, 
the  bare  rock  surfaces  still  show  the  scratches  that 
were  made  by  the  stones  frozen  into  the  base  of  the  ice- 
sheet  when  it  passed  over  this  summit.  The  glacier  ad- 
vanced until  its  southern  margin  was  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
(Fig.  14).  The  islands  of  Marthas  Vineyard  and  Nantucket 
were  in  part  covered  by  the  ice.    On  the  southernmost 


Fig.  13.  This  woman  is  sorting  and  weighing  skeins 
of  raw  silk  in  a  silk  mill  at  South  Manchester, 
Connecticut.  Connecticut  is  the  only  New  England 
state  which  has  developed  an  important  silk- 
manufacturing  industry 


shores  of  Marthas  Vineyard  there  are  rocks  that  the  glacier 
carried  from  the  mainland  and  left  there  when  it  melted. 

About  half  of  Long  Island  was  covered  by  the  ice- 
sheet,  and  the  belt  of  hills  that  extends  from  east  to 
west  through  the  middle  of  the  island  is  made  of  stones, 
sands,  and  clays  left  by  the  ice  (Fig.  39).  That  belt  of 
hills  is  a  part  of  the  deposit  left  by  the  glacier  and 
marks  the  southern  limit  of  ice  advance  in  that  region. 

Retreat  of  the  ice.  When  the  climate  grew  warmer.  ( he 
ice  slowly  melted  away.  All  the  stones  that  were  in  the 
glacier  were  left  on  the  ground.  The  streams  that  came 
from  the  melting  glacier  washed  some  of  the  sands  and 
gravels  southward,  and  in  many  places  made  great  plains 
of  that  loose  material.  This  explains  why  New  England 
has  so  many  bowlders,  and  why  in  some  places  the  soil  is 
sandy  and  gravelly. 

Waterfalls,  rapids,  and  lakes.  As  the  ice  melted 
farther  to  the  northward  the  material  which  it  left 
blocked  many  of 
thestream  courses. 
The  rivers  had  to 
find  new  ways  to 
the  sea.  In  doing 
this  they  some- 
times had  difficul- 
ties. There  was 
hard  rock  to  be 
cut  away.  This 
is  the  explanation 
of  the  falls  and 
rapids.  Streams 
commonly  have 
falls  or  rapids 
where  they  cross 
hard  rock.  Other 
streams  were  so 
blocked  by  the  de- 
posits of  glacial 
material  that  the 
waters  could  not 

get  out,  and  so  hundreds  of  ponds  and  lakes  came  into 
existence.  Where  such  ponds  and  lakes  have  been 
drained  there  are  fertile  meadow  lands. 

Note  to  Teacher.  Each  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  make  a 
collection  of  pictures  and  to  prepare  a  portfolio  or  a  scrapbook.  Adver- 
tising booklets,  newspapers,  and  magazines  will  furnish  an  abundance 
(if  material.  As  the  study  of  geography  proceeds,  the  pupil*  should 
tiring  to  class  the  pictures  they  have  obtained  of  the  country  under 
consideration,  and  thus  additional  illustrations,  in  which  the  pupils  are 
especially  interested,  will  be  available  for  each  lesson. 

Home  work.  1.  Arrange  your  own  pictures  of  New  England 
in  groups  showing  the  scenery  or  occupations.  2.  Write  at  least 
fifty  words  of  description  about  each  one. 


Fig.  14.  This  map  shows  the  extent  to  which 
North  America  was  covered  by  ice  in  the  glacial 
period.  Where  were  the  four  great  centers  of 
snow  accumulation  ?  Which  of  these  centers  has 
an  ice-sheet  to-day  ? 


NEW  ENGLAND 


11 


Inlets  and  harbors.  When  the  ice  advanced  through 
the  valleys  to  the  coast,  it  deepened  these  valleys  and 
dug  out  great  quantities  of  the  earth.  When  it  retreated, 
there  were  deeper  channels  which  helped  to  make  the 
large  inlets  where  the  best  harbors  are  now  located.  The 
retreat  of  the  ice  from  Boston  Harbor  left  hills  of  earth 
that  rise  above  the  sea  as  islands,  and  these  islands  are 
a  natural  protection  for  the  harbor. 

Sinking  of  the  land.  Another  wonderful  thing  has 
happened  which  has  helped  New  England.  The  land  near 
the  shore  has  been  depressed,  or  lowered,  and  the  sea 
waters  have  advanced  into  the  mouths  of  the  rivers.  For 
this  reason  New  England  is  said  to  have  a  "  drowned 
coast."  The  drowning  and  the  ice  action  have  made 
the    coast    irregular   and    produced    the    good  harbors. 


©  Henrj  ti-  Penbody 

Fig.  15.  This  is  Crawford  Notch  in  the  White  Mountains  of  New  England. 
Notice  the  gently  rounded,  forest-covered  slopes,  and  contrast  them  with 
the  sharp,  rugged  peaks  in  Fig.  2  on  page  4.  The  White  Mountains  are 
part  of  the  old,  worn-down  Appalachian  Highlands,  which  form  the  highest 
land  in  the  eastern  United  States 

The  rock  islands  off  the  coast  of  Maine  and  New 
Hampshire  are  due  chiefly  to  the  sinking  of  the  land. 
They  are  hill-tops,  standing  with  only  their  heads  out 
of  the  water  (Fig.  16).  We  shall  find  that  the  eleva- 
tion of  many  lands  above  sea  level  has  been  changed ; 
some  of  them  have  been  depressed  and  others  have  been 
uplifted. 

Lafayette  Park.  A  portion  of  Mount  Desert  Island 
on  the  coast  of  Maine  has  been  set  aside  as  the  Lafayette 
National  Park.  This  is  the  first  national  park  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River. 

Summary.  Almost  everything  of  natural  origin  in  New 
England  has  proved  to  be  a  real  resource  to  man:  the 
harbors,  the  streams  with  their  water-power,  the  forests, 
the  soils,  and  the  underlying  rocks.   The  moist  climate, 


Fig.  16.   Bar  Harbor  is  one  of  the  many  beautiful  summer  resorts  on  the 

Maine  coast.   The  islands  which  you  can  see  in  the  view  are  just  the  tops 

of  hills  which  used  to  stand  entirely  above  water.   Because  the  coast  has 

sunk,  Maine  is  said  to  have  a  "  drowned  shore  line  " 

with  enough  rainfall  for  farming  and  for  the  lakes  and 
streams,  has  proved  to  be  a  natural  resource.  The  moun- 
tain scenery,  the  many  lakes,  and  the  seashore  are  true 
natural  resources.  As  a  busy  people  we  need  play- 
grounds, we  need  vacations,  and  these  restful  and  beauti- 
ful spots  are  now  of  great  value  to  us. 

The  future.  New  England  will  always  be  an  industrial, 
or  manufacturing,  district.  There  are  natural  advantages 
here  which  will  continue  to  give  this  part  of  the  count  ry 
the  leadership  in  certain  lines  of  manufacturing.  The 
forests,  now  in  part  held  by  the  government,  will  be 
more  wisely  cared  for.  The  fishing  interests  should  be 
conserved.  The  great  supplies  of  building  stone  will 
last  almost  indefinitely.  Market-gardening,  dairying, 
and  poultry-farming  may  all  be  developed  much  more 
extensively,  and  the  planting  and  care  of  apple  trees 
should  be  promoted.  With  scientific  care  many  of  the 
abandoned  farms  will  again  become  productive. 


Fig.  17.   The  woolen  mills  at  Winooski,  Vermont,  owe  their  location  to  the 

falls  of  the  Winooski  River.    More  and  more  of  the  New  England  waterfalls 

are  being  harnessed  and  made  to  produce  power  for  industry.   What  are  the 

chief  products  of  New  England  manufacture  ? 


12 


NEW  ENGLAND 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Where  were  the  first  settle- 
ments of  white  people  in  this  region  ?  2.  What  natural  advan- 
tages led  to  the  location  of  these  settlements  ?  3.  What  natural 
advantages  led  to  the  more  rapid  growth  of  Boston  ?  4.  What 
disadvantages  did  the  early  settlers  find  in  this  region  ? 

5.  To  what  occupations  did  the  forests  lead  ?  the  water-power  ? 
6.  Where  are  there  wood-pulp  mills  ?  7.  For  what  is  the  pulp 
used  ?  8.  Why  was  sheep-raising  undertaken  by  many  New  Eng- 
land people?  9.  What  factors  led  to  the  abandonment  of  New 
England  farms  ? 

10.  What  leading  cities  have  been  much  benefited  by  a  loca- 
tion on  the  coast?  11.  What  cities  have  developed  at  the  head 
of  navigation  on  certain  of  the  rivers  ?  12.  What  river  in  New 
England  has  been  most  used  in  developing  water-power  ? 

13.  Why  are  the  mouths  of  the  New  England  rivers  wide  and 
deep  ?  14.  Wrhat  is  the  largest  river  in  New  England  ?  15.  What 
are  the  chief  manufactured  products  of  New  England  ?  16.  Why 
has  New  England  become  a  manufacturing  region  ? 

17.  Name  a  leading  cotton-manufacturing  center;  a  woolen- 
manufacturing  center ;  two  cities  where  boots  and  shoes  are  made 
in  large  numbers.  18.  Could  New  England  get  along  easily 
without  importing  foods  from  other  regions  ?    WThy  ? 

19.  What  foods  has  New  England  in  such  quantities  that  some 
may  be  exported?  20.  Where  does  the  fuel  for  New  England 
come  from  ?  How  is  it  sent  ?  21.  Why  should  there  be  so  many 
large  bowlders  in  the  fields  ?  22.  WThy  do  we  find  scratched  and 
polished  rock  surfaces  along  the  coast  of  Maine  and  on  many 
of  the  mountains  ? 

23.  How  much  of  New  England  was  formerly  covered  by  ice  ? 
24.  Where  did  this  ice  come  from  ?  25.  How  was  the  ice  formed  ? 
26.  Why  did  the  ice  disappear  ?  27.  Why  do  the  farmers  build 
stone  walls  about  their  fields  in  New  England  ?  28.  How  do  the 
attractive  summer  resorts  along  the  coast  and  in  the  mountains 
benefit  New  England  ? 

MAP  STUDIES 

Maine.  The  White  Mountains  that  center  in  New  Hamp- 
shire extend  northeastward  into  Maine,  but  do  not  reach  quite 
to  the  eastern  border  of  the  state.  Note  on  the  map  the 
curving  brown  line  which  runs  from  Saddleback  Mountain 
to  a  point  near  Houlton.  North  of  this  line  the  land  bor- 
dering the  old,  worn-down  mountains  is  a  plateau  country. 
South  of  this  line  the  land  is  part  of  the  Coastal  Hilly  Belt. 

All  of  Maine  is  within  the  Appalachian  Highlands,  where 
there  is  a  pleasing  variety  in  the  surface  features.  Lakes  and 
streams  are  abundant.  The  irregular  coast  has  numerous  pic- 
turesque inlets  and  islands.  1.  Locate  Mt.  Katahdin  and  give 
its  elevation.    2.  Name  two  navigable  rivers ;  three  large  lakes. 

New  Hampshire.  The  center  of  scenic  interest  in  this  state 
is  Mt.  Washington,  and  the  outlook  from  the  summit  is  over 
the  Presidential  Range  and  the  beautiful  lake  district  in  the 
bordering  hilly  country.  The  lowlands  near  the  Connecticut 
River  and  small  areas  among  the  hills  of  the  Coastal  Belt 
furnish  attractive  opportunities  for  farming.  The  state  is 
fortunate  in  having  large  supplies  of  good  building  stone, 
extensive  forests,  and  an  abundance  of  water-power. 

Vermont.  The  Green  Mountains  extend  from  north  to 
south  through  this  state.  In  the  northwest  are  the  fertile 
agricultural  lowlands  that  border  Lake  Champlain,  and  in  the 


southeast  the  farm  lands  of  the  Connecticut  River  Lowland. 
The  mountains  are  forested  and  furnish  large  quantities  of 
lumber.  The  granites  and  marbles  of  the  mountains  are  used 
as  building  and  ornamental  stones,  and  the  valleys  between 
the  ranges  are  used  as  farm  lands.  Water-power  is  available 
in  many  places. 

Massachusetts.  This  state  is  fortunate  in  having  a  preat 
variety  in  surface  features  and  soils.  The  Connecticut  River 
Lowland  is  between  two  belts  of  old,  worn-down  mountains. 
To  the  west  are  the  Berkshire  Hills.  They  represent  the 
southward  extension  of  the  Green  Mountains.  To  the  east 
are  the  Central  Highlands  of  Massachusetts.  They  are  the 
southward  extension  of  the  White  Mountains.  Farther  east 
is  the  Coastal  Hilly  Belt,  and  in  the  extreme  southeast  a  little 
of  the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain.  Cape  Cod,  Nantucket,  and 
Marthas  Vineyard  are  in  the  Coastal  Plain  region  and  have 
light,  sandy  soils.  The  hills  and  mountains  contain  building 
stones,  much  of  the  land  is  suitable  for  farming,  and  nearly 
every  stream  furnishes  water-power. 

Rhode  Island.  This  is  the  only  state  entirely  within  the 
Coastal  Hilly  Belt.  The  sinking  of  the  land  has  allowed  the 
sea  to  advance  inland  and  form  Narragansett  Bay.  Here 
there  are  good  harbors  and  many  islands  and  peninsulas  that 
furnish  attractive  sites  for  seaside  homes  and  resorts. 

Connecticut.  Near  the  coast  this  state  is  hilly,  and  the  hills 
become  higher  to  the  north  and  northwest  near  the  old,  worn- 
down  mountains.  The  Connecticut  River  Lowland  crosses 
from  Hartford  to  New  Haven,  but  the  river  leaves  the  Low- 
land at  Middletown  and  flows  southeastward  to  Long  Island 
Sound.  The  manufacturing  centers  of  this  state  are  fortu- 
nate in  being  near  the  great  markets  of  the  city  of  New  York. 

GENERAL  QUESTIONS 

1.  Are  the  products  of  New  England  all  used  there,  or  are 
some  exported  ?  2.  Wrhat  countries  do  New  England  manu- 
facturers draw  upon  most  for  raw  material  ?  3.  Why  should 
the  New  England  farmers  give  so  much  attention  to  dairy- 
ing, gardening,  and  poultry-raising  ? 

4.  Where  do  the  grains  and  meats  come  from  that  are  ex- 
ported from  Boston  and  Portland  ?  5.  What  conditions  off- 
shore make  favorable  fishing  grounds?  6.  What  are  the 
chief  crops  of  the  Connecticut  River  Lowland?  7.  Where 
is  maple  sugar  made  in  large  quantities  ? 

8.  Where  is  granite  obtained?  Where  is  marble  obtained? 
9.  How  may  the  irregular  coast  line  of  New  England,  which 
has  given  such  good  harbors,  be  explained  ? 

10.  What  rivers  in  New  England  are  navigable?  11.  To 
what  state  do  Nantucket  and  Marthas  Vineyard  belong? 

12.  What  state  in  this  group  is  without  a  seaeoast  ? 
13.  What  water  route  is  there  from  Burlington,  Vermont, 
to  the  sea?  14.  Is  Boston  or  Buffalo  farther  from  the 
equator  ?    See  western  margin  of  map. 

15.  Compare  the  latitude  of  Providence  with  that  of  Cleve- 
land, Ohio.  16.  What  city  in  France  is  in  about  the  same  lati- 
tude as  Bangor,  Maine  ?  See  eastern  margin  of  map.  17.  What 
New  England  states  border  on  the  Canadian  frontier  ? 

Notk.    For  a  study  of  New  England  cities  see  page!  8  and  0. 


D    Long.    71°    West    E    from    70°    GreenYwich 


Ginn  and  Compauy 


14 


ATLANTIC  AND  GULF  COASTAL  PLAIN 


utionai  1  din  Service,  Ino. 


Fig.  18.  The  Cape  Cod  Canal  in  Massachusetts  was  opened  in  1914.  It 
connects  Cape  Cod  Bay  with  Buzzards  Bay,  making  a  short,  safe  route  from 
Boston  to  Long  Island  Sound,  in  place  of  the  long,  dangerous  trip  around 
the  Cape.   Here  is  a  tugboat  passing  through  a  liftbridge  over  the  canal. 


The  canal  is  8  miles  long,  100  feet  wide,  and  25  feet  deep,  making  it  possible 
for  large  vessels  to  pass  through  it.  Its  cost  was  twelve  million  dollars, 
but  already  it  has  saved  merchants  and  shippers  many  times  that  amount. 
Locate  the  canal  on  the  map  on  page  13.    In  what  natural  region  is  it? 


ATLANTIC  AND  GULF  COASTAL  PLAIN 

To  open  the  study  of  this  natural  region,  examine 
each  of  the  pictures  from  Fig.  18  to  Fig.  39,  reading 
the  statements  below  the  pictures.  Make  a  list  of  all 
the  facts  you  discover  in  this  way.  What  are  the  occu- 
pations of  the  people  ?  Is  the  country  rough  or  smooth  ? 
Is  it  wet  or  dry  ?  Are  any  rock  ledges  shown  ?  Are  there 


the  air  near  the  coast,  both  over  the  sea  and  over  the 
land,  somewhat  warmer  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 
Along  the  east  Gulf  and  Atlantic  coast,  within  this 
region,  the  rainfall  varies  from  40  to  60  inches  a  year. 
That  is  enough  for  agriculture.  West  of  the  Mississippi 
River  the  rainfall  decreases  from  about  50  inches  to  20 
inches  near  the  Rio  Grande.    At  the  Mexican  frontier 


any  great  bowlders  in  the  soil,  as  in  New  England  ?     agriculture  is  uncertain  unless  irrigation  is  practiced. 


What  are  the  principal  crops?  Make  a  list  of  the  sea- 
ports shown  in  the  views.  What  parts  of  this  area  appear 
to  be  the  warmest?  The  maps  and  the  text  will  sup- 
plement what  has  been  learned  by  studying  the  pictures. 

Climate.  The  Coastal  Plain  extends  so  far  from  north 
to  south  that  the  climate  at  one  end 
differs  greatly  from  that  at  the  other 
end.  The  temperature  along  the  Gulf 
coast  is  about  85  degrees  in  summer 
and  about  50  degrees  in  winter. 
Farther  north,  along  the  Middle 
Atlantic  states  and  the  southern 
shores  of  New  England,  the  summers 
are  warm,  but  the  winter  temperature 
often  falls  below  zero.  Many  of  the 
beaches  of  New  Jersey,  Long  Island, 
and  eastward  to  the  end  of  Cape  Cod 
are  used  as  summer  resorts,  and  many 
of  the  beaches  in  the  South,  especially 
in  Florida,  are  winter  resorts. 

The  Gulf  Stream  flows  northward 
along  the  Atlantic  coast;  it  brings 
warm  waters  northward  and  keeps 


Fig.  19.  These  are  brave  men  of  the  United  States 

Coast  Guard.  They  patrol  the  coast  and  go  to  the 

rescue  of  ships  in  distress.   This  view  shows  one 

of  their  large  life-saving  boats 


Storms  often  originate  over  the  warm  waters  of  the 
tropics  and  start  inland  across  the  Gulf  coast  or  north- 
ward along  the  Atlantic  coast.  These  storms  commonly 
bring  rain  to  the  coastal  lowlands.  Some  of  the  storms 
are  dangerous  to  coastwise  shipping,  but  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  stations  in 
the  West  Indies  and  on  the  mainland 
now  send  out  warnings  by  wireless, 
so  that  sea  captains  may  know  when 
such  storms  are  near  and  what  way 
they  are  traveling.  The  captain  who 
receives  such  warning  may  change 
his  course  and  thus  avoid  meeting 
the  storm. 

Natural  resources.  The  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  Coastal  Plain  includes  ex- 
tensive areas  of  good  farming  land. 
In  many  places  the  soils  are  light 
and  sandy.  Such  soils,  when  fertil- 
ized, are  suitable  for  the  raising  of 
fruit  and  vegetables.  In  Long  Island, 
in  New  Jersey,  and  farther  south 
near  each   of  the   larger  cities  the 


I  H'Iltw .1  &  Underwood 


ATLANTIC  AND  GULF  COASTAL  PLAIN 


15 


Coastal  Plain  soils  are  used 
for  market-gardening  and 
fruitrraising.  In  other  parts 
of  the  Coastal  Plain  the 
lands  are  used  for  general 
farming. 

Deposits  of  phosphate 
rock  are  available  in  several 
localities  (see  map,  p.  23), 
and  that  rock,  when  pul- 
verized, makes  an  excellent 
fertilizer  (Fig.  20). 

A  large  part  of  the 
Coastal  Plain  is  still  over- 
grown with  a  pine  forest. 
This  forest  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  of  the  nat- 
ural resources,  and  fur- 
nishes much  of  the  lumber 


^&t  ?r^  ^^pp 

- 
1 

-; 

a 

irfi 

'^-""A. 

Fig.  20.    This  is  a  phosphate-mining  plant  in  Florida.    The  phosphate 

rock  is  dug  out  of  pits,  loaded  onto  little  cars,  and  carried  to  the  crushers, 

where  it  is  ground  up.    The  state  of  Florida  produces  half  the  world's 

supply  of  phosphate  rock.   For  what  is  it  used  ? 


On  the  map  on  page  25 
notice  in  what  parts  of 
Louisiana  and  Texas  nat- 
ural oil,  or  petroleum,  and 
natural  gas  have  been  dis- 
covered (Fig.  24),  and  in 
what  parts  of  Texas  coal 
is  found.  The  coal  in  the 
Coastal  Plain  region  of  Texas 
is  lignite,  a  soft,  brown  coal, 
somewhat  woody  in  ap- 
pearance. The  coal  farther 
north,  in  the  Central  Plains 
portion  of  the  state,  is  bi- 
tuminous, the  grade  com- 
monly known  as  "  soft 
coal,"  and  very  widely 
used  in  manufacturing.' 

Louisiana  and  Texas  also 


used  in  the  Southern  states  and  even  in  the  Northern 
states  for  building  purposes.  There  are  also  large  cypress 
groves  in  the  Southern  states,  where  lumber  is  obtained. 

Near  the  coast,  where  the  climate  is  warm  enough, 
the  lowlands  are  used  for  cultivating  rice  (Figs.  21,  22). 
The  great  alluvial,  or  river-made,  lands  near  the  Missis- 
sippi River  and  on  the  Mississippi  delta  are  wonder- 
fully fertile,  and  there  large  crops  of  sugar  (Figs.  25,  26), 
rice,  and  cotton  are  raised. 

Offshore,  the  shallow  waters  which  cover  the  conti- 
nental shelf  abound  in  fish,  many  varieties  of  which  are 
used  as  food.  The  quiet  waters  of  the  drowned  river 
mouths  provide  great  quantities  of  oysters,  and  the 
warm  waters  which  surround  the  southern  end  of  Florida 
contain  large  numbers  of  valuable  sponges  and  turtles. 


have  important  sulphur  beds,  which  provide  the  largest 
source  of  supply  in  the  country. 

The  navigable  rivers  and  the  harbors  of  the  Coastal 
Plain  must  also  be  counted  among  the  chief  natural  re- 
sources of  this  region.  Notice  on  the  maps  on  pages  23 
and  25  how  many  of  the  rivers  of  this  region  are  navi- 
gable, and  what  seaports  are  located  near  their  mouths. 

Occupations.  Agriculture  is  quite  evidently  the  chief 
occupation  in  this  region.  Many  farmers  who  formerly 
thought  that  the  Central  Plains  region  was  the  best  part 
of  the  country  to  live  in  have  migrated  to  the  southern 
plains,  where  it  is  not  necessary  to  spend  much  for  warm 
clothing  or  for  coal.  The  settlers  may  work  out  of  doors 
most  of  the  time,  and  such  healthful  work  is  becoming  in- 
creasingly attractive  to  large  numbers  of  American  people. 


&)  Keystone  View  Co. 

Fig.  21.   These  men  are  cultivating  a  rice  field  on  the  Coastal  Plain.   Rice 

is  not  a  native  grain  of  North  America,  but  came  originally  from  Asia.   In 

1694  the  governor  of  South  Carolina  planted  a  little  rice  in  his  garden,  and 

it  grew  so  well  that  the  industry  was  started  in  this  country 


Fig.  22.    After  the  rice  is  harvested  it  is  threshed  in  a  machine  which 

separates  the  kernels  from  the  straw.    This  view  shows  the  threshing 

machine  and  the  stack  of  straw  in  the  background,  and  in  the  foreground  the 

bags  of  rice  ready  to  be  shipped.  What  states  produce  rice  ? 


If) 


ATLANTIC  AND  GULF  COASTAL  PLAIN 


Fig.  23.    On  the  large  Southern  cotton  plantations  the  picking  is  usually 

done  by  negroes,  but  on  the  smaller  farms  this  work  is  often  done  by  the 

owner  and  the  members  of  his  family.   What  are  the  chief  cotton-growing 

states  ?  In  what  two  natural  regions  is  the  cotton  grown  ? 

The  greatest  cotton-producing  region  in  the  world  is 
located  in  the  Southern  states,  where  the  climate  is  warm 
(Fig.  23).  The  large  farms  are  called  plantations.  The 
cotton  crop  requires  the  help  of  thousands  of  people. 
In  the  fields  there  is  the  work  of  planting,  cultivating, 
and  harvesting.  The  cotton  fiber  must  be  picked  from 
the  bolls  by  hand  and  carried  to  the  cotton  gins,  where 
the  lint  cotton  is  separated  from  the  seeds  and  baled. 
It  is  then  ready  for  market, 

The  seeds  of  the  cotton  are  sold  to  the  oil  mills.  In  the 
mills  the  seeds  are  first  put  through  a  process  by  which 
all  the  short  lint  left  on  them  by  the  gin  is  removed ; 
this  is  called  linters  and  is  used  for  making  mattresses 


and  guncotton,  and  for  other  purposes.  The  hulls  are  then 
removed  from  the  seed.  The  cottonseed  hulls  make  ex- 
cellent feed  for  cattle  and  are  nearly  as  valuable  for  this 
purpose  as  hay.  The  oil  is  then  pressed  out  of  the  seed  ; 
cottonseed  oil  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  olive  oil  and 
lard  and  for  other  purposes.  The  residue  of  the  seed, 
after  the  oil  has  been  extracted,  is  called  cottonseed-oil 
cake ;    this  cake  is  ground  into  meal,  and  cottonseed 


Fig.  24.  The  petroleum  fields  of  the  Gulf  Coastal  Plain  are  dotted  with 
derricks  like  these,  each  built  over  an  oiJ  well.  The  Gulf  Field,  as  the  oil 
region  of  Louisiana  and  Texas  is  called,  was  opened  up  about  1900,  and 
since  then  these  two  states  have  becomt  very  important  producing  centers 


Fig.  25.    Railroad  lines  run  through  the  broad  fields  of  sugar  cane  in 

Louisiana,  and  as  the  cane  is  cut  it  is  loaded  onto  the  cars  and  taken  to  the 

mills,  where  it  is  crushed  and  the  juice  extracted.    Louisiana  produces 

nearly  all  the  sugar  cane  raised  in  the  country 

meal  is  used  for  cattle  feed  and  for  fertilizer.  It  is  very 
rich  in  nitrogen  and  is  largely  used  in  commercial 
fertilizers  for  furnishing  this  element. 

Two  enemies  of  the  cotton  plant  are  the  cotton- 
boll  weevil  and  the  pink  boll  worm.  The  weevil  attacks 
the  cotton  plant,  but  the  pink  bollworm  makes  its  way 
into  the  cotton  seeds  and  is  thus  more  destructive  than 
the  weevil.  The  United  States  government  is  making 
a  great  effort  to  kill  off  these  insects  in  the  areas  where 
they  have  established  themselves. 

More  and  more  of  the  cotton  grown  in  the  Southern 
states  is  now  being  manufactured  into  cloth  in  the  South. 
The  cotton  mills  are  operated  by  water-power,  steam- 
power,  and  hydroelectric  power. 

From  the  earliest  days  of  colonization  rosin  and  turpen- 
tine have  been  obtained  from  pine  resin.  These  products 
are  commonly  called  naval  stores,  because  they  were 
used  in  preparing  wooden  ships  for  the  water  (Fig.  32). 

In  New  Jersey  the  sands  of  the  Coastal  Plain  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  glass,  and  the  clays  from  the  low- 
lands have  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  pottery  business. 

Since  the  discovery  of  petroleum,  or  natural  oil,  in 
Louisiana  and  Texas  these  states  have  rapidly  developed 
a  large  oil  business.  Large  quantities  of  the  petroleum 
obtained  from  the  ground  are  piped  to  ports  on  the 
coast  and  then  shipped  to  industrial  centers.  A  great 
amount  of  sulphur  is  mined  in  these  two  states,  and 
Louisiana  produces  great  quantities  of  salt. 


ATLANTIC  AND  GULF  COASTAL  PLAIN 


17 


History  of  settlement. 
The  Coastal  Plain  is  espe- 
cially interesting  to  us 
from  a  historical  stand- 
point. Provincetown,  pro- 
tected by  a  curved  sand 
bar,  or  hook,  at  the  tip  end 
of  Cape  Cod,  has  grown 
up  near  where  the  Pil- 
grims first  landed  in  Amer- 
ica before  making  their 
settlement  at  Plymouth. 

When  settlers  came  to 
Delaware  Bay,  to  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  and  to  the 
mouths  of  navigable  riv- 
ers   farther    south,    they 

moved  upstream  to  the  head  of  navigation.  That  was 
at  the  inner  margin  of  the  Coastal  Plain.  See  maps  on 
pages  23  and  3o.  At  that  line  falls  were  encountered 
in  the  rivers,  and  the  ocean-going  vessels  had  to  stop. 

Where  falls  were  met  in  the  James  River,  Richmond 
was  established.    The  colonists  who  moved  up  Chesa- 


Fig.  26.   This  is  a  great  sugar  refinery  in  Louisiana.   The  raw  sugar,  which  is  the  crystallized  juice  crushed  from 

the  cane,  is  brought  here  to  be  purified.   First  it  is  melted,  then  filtered  and  cleared,  and  finally  recrystallized  into 

the  white  sugar  of  commerce.   Where  does  the  raw  sugar  for  this  refinery  come  from  ? 

that  were  there.  The  line  connecting  these  cities  is  called 
the  fall  line.  It  is  the  western  boundary  of  the  Atlantic 
Coastal  Plain,  and  it  continues  westward,  forming  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  Gulf 
Coastal  Plain.    See  map  on  pages  2  and  3. 

In  the  Southern  states  a  number  of  early  settlements 
peake  Bay  located  Baltimore  at  the  inner  margin  of     were  made  near  the  mouths  of  the  larger  rivers,  and 


the  Coastal  Plain.  Those  who  attempted  to  go  up  the 
Schuylkill  stopped  at  the  falls  in  that  river  and  founded 
a  settlement  that  has  grown  into  the  great  city  of  Phila- 
delphia. In  trying  to  go  up  the  Delaware  River,  falls 
were  encountered  where  Trenton  is  now  located. 

Columbia,  in  South  Carolina,  is  at  the  head  of  naviga- 


they  became  seaports,  such  as  Wilmington  (North  Caro- 
lina), Charleston,  Savannah,  Jacksonville,  Mobile,  and 
New  Orleans. 

Several  of  the  early  Spanish  and  French  explorers  came 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  and  went  up  that  river 
into  the  interior  of  the  continent.  See  Appendix,  Plate  A. 


tion,  as  are  Augusta,  Macon,  and  Columbus  in  Georgia,  The  names  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  such  as  New  Orleans, 
and  Montgomery  in  Alabama.  Many  other  cities  have  Baton  Rouge,  and  St.  Louis,  suggest  that  the  French 
grown  up  along  this  inner  margin  because  of  the  falls     nation  was  interested  in  this  part  of  North  America. 


Fig.  27.  The  Coastal  Plain  sands  of  the  shores 
of  southern  Florida  support  a  large  growth  of 
coconut  palms.  This  view  shows  the  clusters 
of  coconuts  growing  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree 


Fig.  28 .  These  men  are  harvesting  Indian  River  pine- 
apples. Pineapple-growing  has  recently  become  an 
important  industry  in  southern  Florida.  What  con- 
ditions make  fruit-raising  profitable  in  Florida  ? 


Fig.  29.  Oranges  are  the  most  important  of  the 
Florida  fruits.  Thousands  of  acres  are  covered 
with  thriving  groves.  Some  of  the  groves  contain 
lime  and  grapefruit  trees  as  well  as  orange  trees 


18 


ATLANTIC  AND  GULF  COASTAL  PLAIN 


;   1 

^^•FmP 

Jl£W"3K 

SBHMiiMt 

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PMUj; 

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J 

'^pr\f^ 

jgWBmM'31 

^^^^p^"'  ^^"SgSBpSs 

Fig.  30.  Tampa,  Florida,  is  situated  on  the  margin  of  the  Gulf  Coastal 
Plain  at  a  point  where  a  small  river  enters  Tampa  Bay.  This  view  shows 
the  river  and  the  flat  land  on  which  the  city  is  built.  The  lower  channel 
of  the  river  (at  the  right)  has  been  deepened  to  allow  large  vessels  to  enter 

The  Atlantic  portion  of  the  Coastal  Plain,  as  far  south 
as  Florida,  is  a  part  of  the  original  territory  obtained  from 
Great  Britain  by  the  treaty  of  1783,  following  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution.  Florida  was  purchased  from  Spain  in 
1819.  Louisiana  and  Arkansas  are  a  part  of  the  Louisiana 
Territory  purchased  from  France  in  1803,  and  Texas  was 
annexed  to  the  United  States  in  1845  (Fig.  191). 

Until  after  the  Revolutionary  War  almost  all  of  the 
white  people  in  North  America  lived  in  southern  New 
England  or  on  the  Coastal  Plain  and  Piedmont  Belt 
north  of  Georgia  (Fig.  190).  "Piedmont"  means  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountain. 

Origin  of  the  plain.  The  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal 
Plain  was  formerly  under  the  ocean.  At  that  time  the 
continental  shelf  (see  map  opposite  page  82)  was  more 
than  twice  as  wide  as  it  is  to-day.  Rivers  from  the  lands 
brought  sands,  gravels,  and  clays  to  the  shore  line,  just 
as  they  are  bringing  such  materials  to  the  seashore  to-day. 
The  sands,  gravels,  and  clays  thus  deposited  offshore 


r 

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I'.::.    ■:.•-  1  t>J  En.  Div.  R.  J.  AgT.  Coll. 

Fig.  31.   This  is  a  common  sight  along  the  shores  of  Delaware  Bay.   The 

farmers  bring  their  tomatoes  to  the  wharves  in  wagons  and  trucks  and 

load  them  onto  flat  scows  bound  for  the  canneries  at  Baltimore.  Thousands 

of  tons  of  Coastal  Plain  tomatoes  are  canned  every  year  at  Baltimore 


from  the  bay.  Tampa  is  the  chief  port  of  export  for  the  Florida  phosphate. 
The  railroad  tracks  over  which  the  phosphate  is  carried  from  the  mines  to 
the  storage  elevators  are  at  the  right  in  this  view.  Where  is  this  product 
sent  from  Tampa  ?  What  other  products  are  exported  from  this  Gulf  port  ? 

built  up  a  plain  underneath  the  shallow  ocean  waters. 
Later  the  land  rose,  the  sea  retreated,  and  the  Coastal 
Plain  came  into  existence. 

The  surface  soil  was  enriched  by  the  decay  of  vege- 
table matter,  and  in  time  this  whole  region  became 
clothed  with  plant  life  and  with  great  forests.  Most 
of  the  materials 
which  make  up 
the  Coastal  Plain 
are  soft  and  loose. 
Even  a  boy  would 
have  difficulty  in 
finding  a  stone  to 
throw.  Instead 
of  bowlder  walls, 
as  in  New  Eng- 
land, the  early 
inhabitants  built 
picturesque  rail 
fences.  In  place 
of  marbles,  gran- 
ites, sandstones, 
limestones,  and 
other  hard  rocks 
similar  to  those 
that  form  the  Ap- 
palachian High- 
lands, the  materials  of  the  Coastal  Plain  usually  consist 
of  loose  sands,  gravels,  marls,  loams,  and  clays. 

Delaware  Bay,  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  the  broad  inlets 
farther  south  are  estuaries,  or  drowned  river  mouths, 
due  to  a  late  sinking  of  the  coast. 

Sand  reefs  and  sand  dunes.  Use  maps  on  pages  23, 
25,  and  35.  Along  the  shores  of  the  Coastal  Plain  the 
waves  have  built  sand  reefs  which  inclose,  or  nearly  in- 
close, lagoons.  These  offshore  reefs  become  natural  break- 
waters. There  is  one  over  100  miles  long  on  the  coast 
of  Texas ;  and  in  the  Carolinas,  Cape  Lookout  and  Cape 


iz)  LoJerwihul  *  CiiiJemood 


Fig.  32.   Savannah,  Georgia,  is  the  largest  market 

in  the  country  for  naval  stores.    The  wharves  are 

crowded  with  barrels  of  rosin,  tar,  and  turpentine, 

ready  for  export.   Where  will  they  be  sent  ? 


ATLANTIC  AND  GULF  COASTAL  PLAIN 


19 


Hatteras  are  parts  of  sand  reefs  which  project  as  great 
points  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Along  the  New  Jersey 
and  Long  Island  coasts  there  are  also  offshore  reefs. 

The  sands  washed  up  by  the  waves  on  these  reefs  are 
commonly  blown  into  sand  dunes,  so  there  is  usually  a 
line  of  low  hills  bordering  the  coast. 

When  a  sand  reef  is  formed  near  the  mouth  of  a  river 
or  a  harbor,  the  end  of  it  is  usually  curved.  At  the  open- 
ing of  New  York  harbor,  Rockaway  Beach  on  Long  Island 


Fig.  33.   This  is  a  view  in  the  business  section  of  Houston,  Texas.    The 

broad,  well-surfaced  street,  wide  sidewalks,  and  fine  business  blocks  are 

typical  of  the  enterprising  cities  of  the  Gulf  Coastal  Plain.   Locate  Houston 

on  your  map.   What  are  its  chief  business  activities,  and  why  ? 

and  Sandy  Hook  on  the  New  Jersey  side  are  both  curved 
(Fig.  52).  The  tip  end  of  Cape  Cod  was  formed  into  a 
curved  reef,  or  hook,  by  the  work  of  waves  and  shore 
currents.  This  hook  protects  the  harbor  of  Province- 
town.  All  the  land  about  Provincetown  is  sand.  The 
hills  here  are  made  of  sand  blown  up  by  the  winds. 


Fig.  34.   Galveston  is  built  on  the  end  of  a  sand  bar  and  is  open  to  the  full 

force  of  the  waves  from  the  Gulf.    In  1900" the  city  was  destroyed  by 

hurricane  waves,  and  since  then  this  great  cement  sea  wall  has  been  built 

in  order  to  prevent  another  such  disaster 

Coral  islands.  Along  the  shore  of  Florida,  where  the 
sea  waters  are  sufficiently  warm,  corals  have  grown  and 
made  little  islands  and  reefs.  Corals  grow  in  clear  ocean 
waters  where  the  temperature  does  not  fall  below  68° 
Fahrenheit  and  where  the  depth  is  not  more  than  120  feet. 
We  shall  find  that  there  are  coral  animals  in  the  tropical 
seas  all  around  the  earth  where  there  are  clear,  shallow 
waters. 

Mississippi  delta.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 
River  is  one  of  the  largest  deltas  in  the  world.  Each 
year  the  river  brings  millions  of  tons  of  sediment  to  the 
Gulf.  If  all  the  material  brought  in  one  year  were  placed 
on  a  square  mile,  it  would  be  nearly  270  feet  high. 

When  the  river  water  meets  the  still  water  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  it  loses  its  velocity  and  so  is  forced  to 
drop  whatever  it  is  carrying.  The  deposits  appear  first 
as  bars  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  the  river 
is  forced  to  divide  and  form  two  mouths.  This  process 
continues  until  there  are  several  mouths. 

Each  distinct  mouth  is  called  a  distributary.  It  takes 
water  away  from  the  main  stream  and  thus  does  a  work 
that  is  quite  different  from  the  work  of  a  tributary. 


Fig.  35.  New  Orleans  is  located  on  a  broad  bend  of  the  Mississippi  River 
about  one  hundred  miles  above  its  mouth.  This  view  shows  part  of  the 
city  and  in  the  distance  the  low,  flat  land  of  the  Mississippi  delta  across 
which  the  river  winds  its  way.    Can  you  explain  the  origin  of  this  delta  ? 


£)  ilcruit  i'UUiilniig  Co. 

The  river  channel  has  been  deepened  so  that  the  largest  ocean  steamers 
can  reach  New  Orleans,  making  it  the  most  important  seaport  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  Locate  New  Orleans  on  your  map.  What  are  its  exports? 
With  what  countries  does  it  trade  ?  What  are  some  of  its  chief  imports  ? 


20 


ATLANTIC  AND  GULF  COASTAL  PLAIN 


Fig.  36.    Here  is  a  view  in  a  Mississippi  pecan  orchard.    The  nuts  are 

spread  out  in  trays  according  to  grades  and  sizes.  Nut-raising  is  a  growing 

industry  in  our  country,  in  which  the  South  and  the  Far  West  lead.   Nuts 

are  very  nutritious,  and  their  use  as  food  is  increasing  rapidly 

Future.  The  Coastal  Plain  is  a  large  region  with 
enough  rainfall  for  agriculture,  and  with  such  good  soils 
that  it  will  surely  become  a  more  and  more  important 
agricultural  district.  The  presence  of  large  supplies  of 
phosphate  rock  that  may  be  used  to  fertilize  the  light 
sandy  soils  is  most  fortunate.  The  trees  should  be  cared 
for  by  trained  foresters,  and  thus  the  supply  of  timber 
and  pitch  can  be  made  permanent,  More  nut-bearing 
trees  and  more  fruits  can  be  raised  (Figs.  36,  37,  38). 
More  of  the  swamp  lands  should  be  drained. 


The  Mississippi  River  can  be  in  part  controlled  and 
forced  to  deposit  more  silts  on  its  flood  plain.  Thus 
wet  lands  are  built  up  and  made  suitable  for  farming. 
Men  should  learn  how  to  control  this  river  in  such  a 
way  as  to  prevent  disastrous  floods.  In  this  way  it  would 
be  possible  to  save  some  of  the  rich  soils  that  the  river 
is  all  the  time  carrying  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  lowlands  of  Florida  are  being  drained  and  made 
available  for  agriculture.  The  seaside  resorts  are  certain 
to  become  more  and  more 
popular  as  the  .cities  of 
this  country  become  more 
crowded.  The  Coastal 
Plain  will  easily  accom- 
modate a  much  larger 
population,  and  with  in- 
telligent, scientific  care 
the  soils  will  yield  greater 
crops,  and  all  who  live 
there  may  be  prosperous. 

The  excellent  harbors 
of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
Coastal  Plain  encourage 
foreign  commerce.  With 
the  ever-increasing  trade 
of  the  United  States  with 
the  countries  of  South 
America,  Central  Amer- 
ica, Mexico,  and  the 
West  Indies  the  states 
of  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
Coastal  Plain  are  sure 
to  be  greatly  benefited. 


Fig.  38.  A  single  peanut  vine,  showing 
the  full-grown  nuts  and  the  little  nodules 
on  the  roots  which  extract  nitrogen 
from  the  air  in  the  soil  and  store  it  up 
for  food  for  the  vine.  When  the  plant 
decays,  the  nitrogen  from  the  nodules 
enriches  the  soil 


Fig.  37.    This  is  a  field  of  Virginia  peanut  vines.    The  blossoms  come  out 

near  the  base  of  the  vine  and  are  at  once  covered  with  earth.    Thus  the 

peanuts  develop  underground  but  are  attached  to  the  branches  of  the  vine, 

not  the  roots.   What  are  the  uses  of  the  peanut  ? 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  How  may  the  absence  of  hard 
rocks  in  the  Coastal  Plain  be  explained  ?  2.  What  is  the  reason 
for  the  great  bays  indenting  this  coast  ?  What  is  an  estuary  '.' 
3.  How  are  deltas  formed  ?  What  proof  is  there  that  the  Missis- 
sippi Rivet  made  the  delta  at  its  mouth  ? 

4.  What  is  the  relationship  of  the  continental  shelf  to  the 
Coastal  Plain  ?  5.  How  were  the  sand  reefs  bordering  the  coast 
formed  ?  6.  Explain  the  presence  of  sand  dunes  on  many  of 
these  reefs.  7.  Explain  the  formation  of  lakes  in  the  Mississippi 
River  flood  plain. 

8.  Why  did  the  early  settlers  who  came  to  this  coast  move  in- 
land rather  than  settle  on  the  shore  ?  9.  Why  did  they  stop  and 
build  settlements  at  the  inner  margin  of  the  Coastal  Plain  ? 
10.  Where  were  some  of  the  early  settlements  ?  11.  What  is  the 
fall  line  ? 

12.  Why  is  this  part  of  the  United  States  an  agricultural  dis~ 
trict  ?  13.  What  conditions  found  here  are  favorable  for  raising 
cotton,  rice,  sugar  cane,  citrous  fruits,  peanuts  ?  11.  What  indus- 
tries have  the  southern  forests  developed  ?  15.  In  what  part  of 
Louisiana  has  oil  been  discovered  ?  16.  What  European  peoples 
sent  exploring  parties  to  this  portion  of  America  ? 


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26 


APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 


Fig.  40.  These  are  the  great  steel  works  at  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  where 
iron  is  made  into  hard,  strong  steel.  The  making  of  steel  is  one  of  the  most 
important  manufacturing  industries  in  our  country,  for  without  steel  very 
little  manufacturing,  building,  or  transportation  would  be  possible.   Steel 

SOUTHERN  DIVISION  OF  THE  APPALACHIAN 
HIGHLANDS 

We  shall  open  the  study  of  this  region  by  examining 
several  maps. 

MAP  STUDIES 

(Use  map  on  pages  2  and  3  and  refer  also  to  maps  on  pages  13,  23,  and  35) 

1.  This  division  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands  extends  from 
the  Hudson  River  to  central  Alabama.  How  far  is  that  ?  Use 
map  scale.  2.  What  are  the  mountain  and  plateau  subdivisions 
of  this  region  ? 

3.  Where  is  the  Blue  Ridge?  4.  Where  are  the  Catskill 
Mountains  ?  Of  what  plateau  are  they  a  part  ?  5.  How  high 
is  Mount  Mitchell,  North  Carolina  ?  Is  Mount  Washington, 
New  Hampshire,  as  high  ?  6.  North  of  Virginia,  which  way 
does  the  drainage  go  from  the  Appalachian  Mountains  ? 

7.  Which  way  does  it  go  from  the  southern  part  of  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  ?  8.  What  are  the  larger  rivers  in 
the  northern  part  ?  in  the  southern  part  ?  9.  What  states  are 
within  or  partly  within  this  division  of  the  Appalachian  High- 
lands ?  10.  What  natural  regions  border  the  Appalachian 
Highlands  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Select  any  pictures  you  have  of  this  part  of 
the  country  and  bring  them  to  school.  2.  Write  brief  studies  of 
your  pictures,  like  those  under  the  views  in  this  book. 

An  industrial  region.  This  division  of  the  Appalachian 
Highlands  is  a  great  industrial  region.  It  is  one  of  the 
busiest  sections  of  the  United  States.  It  includes  the 
densely  populated  districts  in  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
and  Pennsylvania,  and  extends  southwestward  to  the  in- 
dustrial section  of  northern  Alabama.  Locomotives,  steel 
rails,  steel  vessels,  warships,  guns,  and  munitions  are 
manufactured  here  on  a  large  scale  (Fig.  40).  The  Dela- 
ware valley  has  become  the  greatest  shipbuilding  district 


is  necessary  for  all  kinds  of  machinery ;  farmers  must  have  implements 
made  partly  of  steel ;  great  buildings  need  strong  steel  frameworks  ;  loco- 
motives and  automobiles  must  have  many  steel  parts.  In  what  ways  does 
the  manufacturer  depend  upon  the  miner,  and  the  miner  upon  the  farmer  ? 

in  the  world.  Most  of  the  steel  trusses  for  the  bridges 
and  the  steel  beams  for  the  great  skyscrapers  are  made 
in  this  region,  as  well  as  all  kinds  of  heavy  hardware. 

Mining  and  lumbering  are  very  important  occupations 
in  this  part  of  the  United  States,  and  in  places  much  of 
the  wood  of  the  forests  is  made  into  pulp  which  is  used 
in  making  paper.  Most  of  the  cities  are  manufacturing 
centers. 

Natural  Resources 

Sources  of  power  and  raw  materials.  There  are  large 
supplies  of  coal,  oil,  gas,  and  water-power  in  this  region. 
These  are  sources  of  power,  and  man  must  have  power 
in  all  manufacturing  pursuits. 

Iron  is  found  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  in 
the  Adirondacks,  and  great  quantities  are  brought  from 
the  Lake  Superior  district. 

There  are  many  seaports,  many  waterways,  and  a  net- 
work of  railways  (Figs.  42, 43).  Raw  materials  are  readily 
brought  to  this  region,  and  manufactured  articles  are 
easily  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 

To  understand  the  great  development  of  the  indus- 
trial life  in  this  region  it  will  be  necessary,  as  well  as 
interesting,  to  study  certain  of  the  natural  resources 
upon  which  it  is  dependent. 

Coal  is  found  in  the  ground,  usually  in  great  layers.  If 
mining  men  know  that  coal  is  to  be  found  deep  below  the 
surface,  they  sink  a  shaft  (which  is  like  a  well)  into  the 
ground  until  they  reach  the  coal  seam.  Then  the  coal  is 
broken  out  and  brought  to  the  surface.  Little  by  little 
the  men  underground  take  out  the  coal  under  acres  or 
square  miles  of  the  land,  while  the  surface  of  that  land 
is  perhaps  being  used  for  agriculture  (Fig.  41). 


APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 


27 


The  coal  resources  in  this 
region,  and  farther  west  in 
the  great  Mississippi  Valley, 
underlie  thousands  of  square 
miles.  The  United  States 
is  wonderfully  fortunate  in 
having  such  vast  quantities 
of  coal. 

Natural  oil  and  gas.  When 
indications  of  oil  or  gas  are 
noticed,  deep  holes  are  bored 
into  the  ground;  and  if  there 
is  oil  or  gas  there,  it  will 
come  toward  the  surface 
through  pipes  that  are  put 
down  as  the  boring  proceeds. 

Gas  is  commonly  used  as 
fuel  or  for  lighting  purposes. 
Natural  oil,  or  petroleum, 
furnishes  a  large  number  of 
useful  products.  As  it  comes 
from  the  ground  it  is  usu- 
ally a  thick,  dark-green  substance.  When  it  is  heated, 
naphtha  and  gasoline  are  driven  off  as  vapors  and  may 
be  condensed  into  liquids.  Kerosene  is  another  product. 
Our  common  oils  for  machinery  come  from  petroleum. 
Vaseline  is  one  of  the  products,  and  also  paraffin,  which 
is  used  in  making  candles. 

Water-power.  In  addition  to  the  fuels  as  sources  of 
energy  there  is  a  remarkable  amount  of  water-power  in 
this  region.  The  map  on  page  21  shows  where  a  num- 
ber of  the  large  water-power  plants  are  located.  The 
waterfalls  in  the  northern  part  of  the  district  are  due 
to  the  changes  in  drainage,  caused  by  the  glaciers,  just 
as  those  in  New  England  were  caused  (p.  10).  South 
of  the  land  of  glacial  action  (see  maj),j).  21)  water-power 
is  developed  where  streams  have  hard  rocks  in  their 


Fig.  41.  The  layers  of  sandstone,  shale,  limestone,  coal,  and  fire  clay  shown 
in  this  drawing  were  nearly  horizontal  when  they  were  made,  but  they 
were  all  upturned  when  the  Appalachian  Mountains  were  formed.  The 
rain  and  the  rivers  wore  away  some  of  the  surface,  and  men  discovered  the 
seams  of  coal.  Then  the  men  dug  a  deep  hole,  or  shaft,  and  drove  tunnels 
that  crossed  the  layers  of  coal.  Now  the  miners  can  easily  break  out  the 
coal  and  let  it  drop  into  small  cars  that  are  taken  to  the  shaft  and  lifted 
to  the  surface.  The  fire  clay  is  also  mined.  In  coal  fields  away  from  the 
mountains  the  layers  of  coal  are  usually  horizontal 


channels  and  are  having  a 
difficult  time  to  cut  them 
away.  In  such  places  falls 
and  rapids  occur,  and  there 
men  construct  dams  and 
put  in  power  plants. 

Sometimes  the  force  of 
the  falling  water  is  used 
directly  to  turn  mill  wheels 
and  thus  keep  machinery 
running.  Often  the  falling 
water  turns  wheels  that 
generate  electricity.  This 
is  changing  or  transforming 
one  kind  of  energy  into 
another.  Such  plants  are 
called  hydroelectric  plants. 
The  electricity  is  a  very 
convenient  form  of  energy 
and  may  be  used  for  the 
benefit  of  man  in  many 
different  ways. 
Salt  and  gypsum  are  found  at  a  number  of  places  in 
New  York  State  (Fig.  73).  The  salt  is  far  below  the  sur- 
face and  is  a  great  layer  of  rock.  The  gypsum  is  also  a 
layer  of  rock,  but  it  is  nearer  the  surface  than  the  salt. 
These  deposits  are  a  proof  that  there  were  formerly  inland 
seas  in  this  part  of  North  America.  When  the  seas  dried  up 
the  salt  and  gypsum  that  had  been  in  the  water  were  left. 

Map  and  picture  studies.  Use  the  maps  on  pages  23  and  35. 
1.  Make  a  list  of  the  resources  that  man  gets  from  the  ground  in 
the  Southern  Division  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands.  2.  Which 
ones,  when  used,  are  gone  forever  ? 

3.  Which  ones  may  be  used  more  than  once  ?  4.  Study  Fig.  41. 
5.  Where  is  iron  shown  on  these  maps  ?  6.  What  building  stones 
are  shown  ?  There  are  other  excellent  building  stones  in  this  region. 

Home  work.  1.  Find  out  how  coal  was  made.  2.  Find  out  how 
coke  and  other  valuable  products  can  be  obtained  from  coal. 


Fig.  42.   Here  is  a  section  of  one  of  the  great  railroads  of  the  state  of  New 

York,  where  six  tracks  run  parallel  to  one  another.  Above  each  track  is  the 

signal  which  tells  the  engineer  whether  to  go  ahead  or  to  slow  down.   If  it 

is  upright,  the  track  is  clear;  if  it  is  down,  there  is  a  train  ahead 


Fig.  43.   The  electric  engine  is  fast  coming  into  use  on  our  modern  railroads. 

It  makes  traveling  far  cleaner  and  more  comfortable  and  is  easier  to  run 

than  the  steam  engine.    It  carries  no  coal  car  and  needs  no  stokers.    How 

will  the  increased  use  of  hydroelectric  power  affect  railroading  ? 


28 


APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 


Fig.  44.  This  little  girl  is  feeding  the  chickens  on  Fig.  45.    These  little  kids  live  on  the  same  farm.  Fig.  46.  These  are  the  fine,  strong  oxen  which  are 

a  government  experiment  farm  in  Maryland.   Our  Goats  are  not  very  common  in  the  United  States,  used  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  Southern 

government   runs   many  experiment   stations  in  and   the    government    is    experimenting    to    see  Appalachians  for  hauling  logs  in  places  where 

order  to  discover  the  best  farming  methods  whether   goat-raising   would    pay   the    farmer  railroads   have   not   been   built   as   yet 


Soils.  Soils  are  of  the  greatest  importance  to  a  com- 
munity, and  it  is  wise  conservation  to  keep  up  their 
fertility.  For  this  purpose  special  nitrogen-fixing  crops 
(Fig.  38),  such  as  clover  and  alfalfa,  or  soy  beans  and 
peas,  may  be  planted,  and  fertilizers  may  be  used.  The 
continuous  prosperity  of  our  nation  will  depend  more 
upon  the  fertility  of  our  soils  than  upon  any  other  one 
of  our  natural  resources. 

In  the  northern  portion  of  this  region  (including  most 
of  New  York  State),  the  northern  part  of  New  Jersey, 
and  a  little  of  Pennsylvania  the  soils  are  of  glacial  origin. 
See  map  on  page  21.  The  glacial  soils  vary  because  they 
are  made  of  different  kinds  of  rocks,  which  were  ground 
up,  or  pulverized,  by  the  movement  of  the  glacier ;  some 
are  stony,  some  are  heavy  clays,  others  are  sandy  and 
gravelly,  but  most  of  them  are  fertile  soils. 

South  of  the  line  of  ice  action  the  soils  were  made 
during  long  periods  of  rock  decay  (Fig.  48).  Those  periods 
were  probably  millions  of  years  in  length.  Each  time 
that  the  rocks  are  heated  by  the  sun  and  then  cooled  they 
expand  and  contract  and  thus  are  weakened.    Each  time 


that  water  freezes  in  the  cracks  of  the  rock  it  expands 
and  opens  the  cracks  a  little  more,  just  as  the  formation 
of  ice  may  break  a  bottle  or  a  pitcher.  Each  time  that 
a  root  gets  into  a  crack  and  grows  it  helps  to  widen  the 
crack,  and  sometimes  roots  of  trees  break  rocks.  As 
plants  decay  and  as  animals  burrow  through  the  loose 
material  the  soil  becomes  finer  and  finer  until  a  surface 
loam  is  made. 

Forests.  See  Figs.  49,  60,  and  SI.  The  soil  in  a  forest 
is  loose  and  porous,  and  much  of  the  rainfall  easily  sinks 
into  the  ground.  Thus  there  is  less  water  to  rush  down 
the  hillsides  and  cause  floods.  The  water  which  sinks  into 
the  ground  percolates  through  the  soil  and  gradually  finds 
its  way  into  the  streams,  thus  preventing  them  from  dry- 
ing up.  In  the  shade  of  the  forest  also  the  surface  water 
evaporates  slowly.  Thus  droughts  are  prevented.  In 
portions  of  this  region  where  the  forests  have  been 
removed  from  the  mountain  sides  heavy  rainfalls  often 
cause  disastrous  floods.  At  other  times  droughts  occur 
because  the  rain  waters,  instead  of  sinking  into  the 
ground,  have  poured  down  the  hillsides  and  been  lost. 


Fig.  47.   Dairying  is  very  important  in  the  Southern  Appalachians.   The 

great  round  dairy  barn  in  which  this  herd  of  cattle  lives  will  hold  four 

hundred  and  fifty  cows.  In  the  center  of  the  barn  is  a  big  silo,  in  which  one 

thousand  tons  of  green  feed  can  be  stored  for  the  cows  to  eat  in  winter 


Fig.  48.    This  is  a  farming  scene  in  a  part  of  the  Southern  Appalachians 

which  is  south  of  the  glacial  line.   Notice  the  careful  way  in  which  the 

soil  has  been  rolled  and  left  in  clean,  even  furrows,  ready  for  planting 

the  seed.  How  have  the  soils  in  this  part  of  the  region  been  made? 


APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 


29 


Fig.  49.  In  the  mountains  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  the  lack  of  snow 

makes  it  impossible  to  haul  the  logs  from  the  lumbering  districts  on  sleds. 

Instead  they  are  often  taken  out  over  narrow-gauge  railroad  lines.   In  this 

view  the  great  logs  are  being  loaded  onto  the  cars  by  a  steam  crane 

The  roots  of  the  trees  help  to  bind  the  soils  and  keep 
them  on  the  mountain  slopes.  The  presence  of  the  forest, 
therefore,  is  beneficial  in  many  ways,  in  addition  to  sup- 
plying lumber,  wood  pulp,  and  pitch. 

To-day  there  are  national  forests  in  the  southern  por- 
tions of  the  Appalachian  Mountains.  The  government 
has  purchased  thousands  of  acres,  where  trees  will  be 
planted  and  cared  for  by  trained  foresters. 

Climate.  The  prevailing  winds  throughout  this  belt 
come  from  the  southwest,  and  many  of  the  storms  that 
pass  over  the  country  come  from  the 
southwest  and  move  northeastward. 
Some  storms  come  from  the  west 
or  northwest  and  then  change  and 
move  northeastward. 

In  the  higher  mountains  the  rain- 
fall amounts  to  over  60  inches  a 
year,  but  in  the  lower  portions  of  the 
country  the  annual  rainfall  is  from 
40  to  50  inches.  Heavier  rainfall  in 
the  higher  mountains  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  winds  coming  to  these 
mountains  must  rise  to  such  eleva- 
tions that  the  water- vapor  in  the  air 
is  cooled  and  forms  tiny  drops  of 
water  that  float  in  the  air  as  clouds 
until  the  drops  become  too  large, 
when  they  fall  as  rain.  The  rainfall 
in  this  region  is  sufficient  for  all 
agricultural  uses  and  for  domestic 
and  industrial  purposes.  The  water- 
power  is  chiefly  dependent  upon  the 
heavy  rainfall  in  the  mountains. 


Fig.  51.  These  men  are  fighting  a  forest  fire  in  the 
Southern  Appalachians.  Fires  of  this  kind  are 
usually  started.through  carelessness,  and  they  de- 
stroy millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  timber  each  year 


Fig.  50.    When  the  loaded  cars  reach  the  sawmill,  the  logs  are  rolled  off 

into  the  log  pond.    At  the  left  in  this  picture  you  can  see  the  track  on 

which  the  log  cars  run,  and  at  the  right  the  floating  logs  which  will  be 

sawed  into  boards  in  the  mill.   Why  should  we  preserve  our  forests  ? 

Location  and  growth  of  cities.  At  the  southeast  margin 
of  the  highlands  are  the  fall-line  cities,  beginning,  at  the 
north,  with  New  York  and  ending,  at  the  south,  with 
Montgomery,  Alabama.  See  maps  on  pages  23  and  35. 
Each  of  these  cities  is  located  on  navigable  waters,  and 
most  of  them  have  the  advantage  of  water-power. 

Another  group  of  important  cities  includes  those  located 
within  the  Appalachian  Highlands  on  large  rivers ;  such 
cities  as  Harrisburg  and  Pittsburgh  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Wheeling  and  Huntington  in  West  Virginia. 

A  third  group  of  leading  cities 
includes  those  that  owe  their  loca- 
tion to  the  presence  of  some  partic- 
ular natural  resources.  Birmingham, 
Alabama,  is  near  the  iron  and  coal 
of  the  southern  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains, and  Scranton  and  Wilkes-Barre. 
in  Pennsylvania,  are  in  the  midst  of 
the  hard-coal  field  of  that  state. 
Many  of  the  cities  of  this  natural 
region  owe  their  location  to  the 
local  development  of  prosperous 
farming  communities. 

The  business  of  a  manufacturing 
city  may  be  divided  into  three  parts : 

( 1 )  the  gathering  of  raw  materials ; 

(2)  the  manufacture  of  commodities ; 
and  (3)  the  distribution  of  the  manu- 
factured goods.  To  carry  on  its  busi- 
ness each  industrial  center  demands 
good  transportation  facilities  to  and 
from  the  city,  and  some  source  of 
power  to  turn  the  wheels  of  its  mills. 


30 


APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 


The  city  of  New  York  has  the  largest  population  of  all 
the  cities  in  the  world  and  outranks  all  others  in  export 
and  import  trade.  Its  excellent  harbor  affords  a  port 
for  the  largest  vessels  (Fig.  52).  Raw  materials  may  be 
brought  from  all  parts  of  the  world  to  this  center,  and 
manufactured  goods  may  easily  be  shipped  to  all  parts 
of  the  world.  This  location  on  the  seashore,  therefore, 
is  one  of  the  most  desirable  places  in  the  United  States 
for  a  city.  In  addition.  New  York  has  the  advantage  of 


/,-ARITA-N  BAT 


SANDY  HOOK 


@Gmi  and  Company 

Fig.  52.  This  is  an  aeroplane  drawing  of  New  York  City  and  its  surroundings.  The  city  originally  occupied 
only  the  island  of  Manhattan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River.  Trace  the  outline  of  the  island  in  this 
view.  The  city  of  New  York  now  includes  the  five  boroughs  of  Manhattan,  the  Bronx,  Brooklyn,  Queens, 
and  Richmond.  Locate  these  boroughs  in  the  drawing.  How  many  people  live  in  this  great  city  ?  What 
proportion  is  this  of  the  population  of  the  United  States  ?   See  Appendix,  pages  viii  and  ix 


In  addition  to  its  commercial  advantages,  New  York  ia 
but  a  short  distance  from  a  large  supply  of  fuel.  From 
the  Appalachian  fields  coal  and  oil  are  quickly  and  easily 
brought  to  the  city  for  use  in  the  large  factories. 

The  leading  industries  in  New  York  are  the  manu- 
facture of  clothing  and  machinery,  printing  and  book- 
making,  meat-packing,  and  the  refining  of  sugar.  New 
York  has  become  the  leading  financial  center  of  the 
world.    There  are  many  banks  and  insurance  companies 

with  large  capital,  and  most  of  the 
great  industrial  houses  of  America 
have  offices  in  the  city  (Fig.  53). 
The  borough  of  Brooklyn  devel- 
oped as  a  large  independent  city 
across  the  river  from  New  York 
City,  but  it  has  now  become  a 
part  of  the  metropolis.  It  is  an 
important  center  for  the  refining 
of  sugar  and  the  roasting  and 
grinding  of  coffee  and  spices. 

Eastward  from  Brooklyn  and 
northward  along  the  banks  of  the 
Hudson  River  are  chains  of 
suburban  towns  where  many  of 
the  people  live  who  work  each 
day  in  the  metropolis. 

To  the  west,  across  the  Hudson 
River,  are  Hoboken,  Jersey  City, 
and  Newark.  These  three  cities 
are  in  New  Jersey,  but  they  have 
many  of  the  same  great  geo- 
graphic advantages  that  New 
York  City  has. 

In  addition  to  the  busy  indus- 
trial and  commercial  life  of  the 
city,  New  York  is  one  of  the 
leading  educational  and  musical 
centers  of  this  country,  and  it  is  for- 
tunate in  having  wonderful  collec- 
tions of  natural  history  and  of  art. 


ATLANTIC    OCEAN 


SANDY  HOOK 
LIGHT  SHIP 


being  at  the  mouth  of  an  important  river.  Northward 
from  New  York  is  the  busy  highway  of  travel  through 
the  valley  of  the  Hudson,  and  equally  important  is  the 
valley  of  the  Mohawk,  leading  westward  from  Albany. 
By  the  Hudson-Mohawk  route  supplies  of  raw  material 
for  manufacture,  and  great  quantities  of  food,  are  brought 
from  the  rich  agricultural  lands  of  the  interior. 

During  the  French  and  Indian  War  and  the  American 
Revolution  the  valley  of  the  Hudson  was  a  center  of 
great  struggle,  for  its  possession  by  an  enemy  meant  the 
separation  of  the  only  two  thickly  settled  districts  of 
America  and  the  isolation  of  New  England  (Fig.  39). 


Picture  study.  Study  Fig.  52  carefully.  1.  What  natural  advan- 
tages lias  New  York  as  a  port  ?  2.  Describe  the  kind  of  country 
around  the  city.  Using  this  aeroplane  view,  with  Fig.  39  and  the 
map  on  page  35,  answer  the  following  questions :  3.  To  what 
natural  region  do  Staten  Island  and  Long  Island  belong  ?  4.  In 
what  natural  region  are  Manhattan  Island,  Jersey  City,  and 
Newark  located  ?  5.  In  what  state  is  Sandy  Hook  ?  6.  Why  should 
there  be  sand  bars  near  the  entrance  to  New  York  harbor  ?  7.  What 
great  natural  highway  leads  northward  from  New  York  ?  8.  Why 
is  most  of  the  trade  between  New  York  and  the  West  carried  on 
over  this  highway  rather  than  over  a  direct  route  from  New  York 
to  Chicago  ?  9.  What  industrial  cities  other  than  New  York  are 
shown  in  Fig.  52  ?  10.  Where  do  they  get  their  raw  materials  ? 
their  fuel? 


APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 


31 


Fig.  53.  This  view  shows  the  lower  end  of  Manhattan  Island  as  it  appears 
from  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson.  This  is  the  business  and  financial  center 
of  New  York  City,  and  the  office  buildings  are  commonly  known  as  sky- 
scrapers, because  they  are  so  high.   The  waterfront  here  is  lined  with  long 

Yonkers  is  situated  on  the  Hudson  and  is  a  very 
important  industrial  and  residential  city. 

Albany,  the  capital  of  New  York,  is  near  the  head  of 
tidewater  on  the  Hudson  (Fig.  54).  To  the  west  is  the 
Mohawk  Valley,  with  the  Erie  and  Barge  canals ;  to 
the  north  is  the  Champlain  Valley,  leading  to  Canada ; 
to  the  east  is  the  best  route  to  Boston  ;  and  to  the  south 
is  the  Hudson  Valley  route  to  New  York.  Albany  is  at 
the  crossing  of  great  trade  routes.    See  map  on  page  21. 

Troy  is  located  at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation  on 
the  Hudson  River  and  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  New 
York  Barge  Canal.  It  is  famous  for  the  manufacture  of 
collars,  cuffs,  and  shirts. 

Schenectady,  on  the  Mohawk,  manufactures  electrical 
supplies  and  locomotives  (Fig.  55). 

Utica  is  another  Mohawk  River  city ;  it  is  one  of  the 
leading  knitting  and  cotton  mill  cities  in  the  country. 


piers  which  jut  out  into  the  river.  Between  them  are  the  deep-water  docks, 
which  receive  the  largest  ocean  liners.  How  is  the  general  shape  of  New 
York  favorable  to  shipping  ?  What  are  its  principal  exports  ?  With  what 
countries  does  New  York  trade  chiefly  ?   What  are  some  of  its  imports  ? 

Syracuse  was  located  near  certain  salt  springs  which 
have  led  to  the  manufacture  of  soda  products.  Railroad 
trade-routes  and  waterways  have  led  here  to  the  growth 
of  manufacturing.  Many  automobiles  and  bicycles  are 
made  in  Syracuse. 

Note.    For  other  cities  in  New  York  State  see  page  34. 

Philadelphia  was  founded  by  the  famous  Quaker, 
William  Penn.  The  name  "  Pennsylvania"  means  Penns 
ivoods,  and  "Philadelphia"  means  brotherly  love.  Here 
is  the  famous  Independence  Hall  (Fig.  58),  where  one 
may  see  the  old  bell  that  first  rang  out  the  good  news 
that  the  Declaration  of  Independence  had  been  signed. 

The  city  is  located  on  the  Delaware  River  and  is  one 
of  the  largest  and  best  seaports  of  the  United  States. 
Before  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  it  was  the  first  city 
of  the  countrv  (Fis;.  56).    It  now  ranks  third  in  size. 


Fig.  54.  Albany,  the  capital  of  New  York,  stands  on  the  steep  west  bank 
of  the  Hudson  River,  150  miles  from  its  mouth.  Approaching  the  city  from 
the  river,  you  can  see  the  large  public  buildings  on  the  hill,  and  below, 
along  the  water-front,  the  docks,  railroad  stations,  and  river  boats.  Albany 


©  Fellows-raft  Plioio  Shup,  Albany 


is  an  important  railroad  center.  At  the  right  in  this  view  is  the  bridge 
over  which  all  trains  from  the  east  must  pass  to  enter  Albany.  Locate 
this  city  on  the  map  on  pages  96  and  97.  How  many  transportation  routes 
can  you  trace  which  pass  through  Albany  or  have  their  terminals  there  ? 


32 


APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 


Fig.  55.  This  is  a  great  locomotive-manufacturing  plant  at  Schenectady,  New  York.  Its  buildings 
cover  acres  of  land.  Schenectady  is  the  center  of  the  locomotive-manufacturing  industry  of  New 
York ;  the  state  produces  about  one  fourth  of  the  locomotives  of  the  country.  What  are  the  essential 
materials  for  this  industry  ?  Where  do  the  locomotive  manufacturers  of  Schenectady  get  them  ? 


Iron  and  coal  are  not  far  away,  and 
Philadelphia  has  become  an  industrial 
center.  More  locomotives  are  made  here 
than  in  any  other  city.  Other  very  im- 
portant industries  are  the  manufacture 
of  clothing  and  clothing  materials,  the 
refining  of  sugar,  the  making  of  ma- 
chine tools  and  textile  machinery,  and 
the  tanning  and  finishing  of  leather. 

Washington  and  the  District  of 
Columbia  are  very  near  the  falls  of  the 
Potomac,  but  Washington  was  not 
located  for  industrial  or  commercial 
purposes.  A  more  detailed  description 
of  the  capital  city,  its  location  and  its 
buildings,  will  be  found  on  page  101. 

Pittsburgh.  The  early  routes  of  westward  migration  led  George  Washington,  then  a  young  man  of  twenty-one, 
settlers  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Ohio  River  in  western  was  sent  to  warn  the  French  away  from  the  Allegheny 
Pennsylvania.  See  map  on  pages  2  and  3.  Here,  at  the  valley.  He  reported  that  the  point  where  the  Mononga- 
junction  of  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers,  the  hela  and  Allegheny  rivers  came  together  was  a  very 
city  of  Pittsburgh  stands  to-day  (Fig.  57).  In  the  year  1753     favorable  situation  for  a  fort.    Accordingly,  in  1754, 

the  British  besran  to 
build  a  fort  there, 
but  before  it  was 
finished  this  was 
seized  by  the  French 
and  given  the  name 
Fort  Duquesne.  The 
following  summer 
Washington  tried  to 
retake  the  foil.  This 
attempt  resulted  in 
the  beginning  of  the 
French  and  Indian 
War,  which  ended 
in  the  withdrawal 
of  the  French  from 
the  territory  and  the 
renaming  of  Fort 
Duquesne  after  the 
great  English  states- 
man, William  Pitt. 
The  water  routes 
made  this  site  favor- 
able for  the  location 
and  growth  of  a 
large  city.  Excellent 
sandstone  for  glass- 
making  is  found  in 
the  Ohio  valley,  and 
Pittsburgh  is  famous 
for   its   plate    glass 


)  Ginn  anil  Compaoj 

Fig.  56.  The  beginning  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  was  made  at  the  falls  of  the  Schuylkill  River,  where  it  tumbles  down 
from  the  hilly  country  of  the  Appalachians  to  the  level  Coastal  Plain.  As  the  city  gradually  grew  in  size  it  came  to  occupy 
all  the  land  between  the  Schuylkill  and  the  Delaware,  and  to-day  the  larger  river  is  much  the  more  important.  Its  channel 
has  been  deepened  so  that  large  ocean  vessels  can  reach  Philadelphia,  and  twenty  miles  of  wharves  along  the  river  front 
make  it  possible  for  hundreds  of  ships  to  dock  here  at  one  time.  For  this  reason,  although  Philadelphia  is  one  hundred 
miles  up  the  river  from  the  sea,  it  is  really  a  seaport  and  has  a  large  foreign  trade.  This  aeroplane  view  shows  parts  of  two 
different  natural  regions.  What  are  they  ?  How  do  they  differ  in  appearance  ?  What  are  the  chief  exports  of  Philadelphia  ? 
Where  do  they  come  from  ?  Where  are  they  sent  ?  What  is  imported  in  return  ? 


APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 


33 


and  glassware.  Since 
coal,  iron,  limestone, 
oil,  and  gas  were 
available,  Pittsburgh 
became  the  leading 
center  in  this  coun- 
try for  the  manu- 
facture of  iron  and 
steel.  As  the  iron 
and  steel  industries 
expanded,  more  iron 
was  required  than 
it  was  possible  to 
secure  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. By  that  time 
the  wonderful  sup- 
plies of  iron  in  the 
Lake  Superior  region 
had  been  discovered, 
and  these  ores  are 
now  brought  by  boat 
to  points  on  Lake 
Erie,  and  then  by 
rail  to  Pittsburgh 
to  supply  its  great 
blast  furnaces. 

The  city  enjoyed 
a  most  remarkable 
development     while 

railroads  were  being  built  throughout  the  United  States. 
The  iron  and  steel  industries  made  possible  the  rapid 
construction  of  railroads,  and  thus   helped  Pittsburgh 
to  grow.    Later  the  introduction  of 
steel  skeletons  for  the  great  office 
buildings,  the  use  of  steel  in  making 
freight  and  passenger  cars,  and  its 
substitution  for  wood  in  a  thousand 
other  ways  brought  a  great  amount 
of  business  to, this  center  of  iron  and 
steel  manufacture. 

Scranton  and  Wilkes-Barre  are  in  the 
midst  of  the  chief  field  of  hard  coal 
in  the  United  States.  Iron  and  steel 
are  available,  and  with  their  supply 
of  coal  these  cities  have  become  in- 
dustrial centers.  Reading  is  beauti- 
fully located  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Schuylkill  on  the  margin  of  the 
Appalachian  Mountain  belt.  It  is  a 
busy  manufacturing  city,  specializing 
in  cotton  and  woolen  goods  and  boots 
and  shoes.     Harrisburg,  the  capital, 


©  <  linn  and  Company 

Fig.  57.  Pittsburgh  has  grown  up  at  the  point  where  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers  join  to  make  the  Ohio  River. 
The  first  settlement  was  made  on  the  little  point  of  land  between  the  two  rivers.  From  that  small  beginning  the  city  has 
grown  to  the  size  which  this  view  shows,  spreading  out  over  the  tongue  of  land  between  the  rivers  and  taking  in  the  settle- 
ments on  the  opposite  banks.  This  aeroplane  drawing  shows  the  kind  of  country  which  you  would  see  if  you  were  to  travel 
through  the  Appalachian  Plateau.  Can  you  describe  it  ?  Why  was  this  spot  a  natural  place  for  a  city  to  grow  up  ?  What 
are  the  important  resources  of  the  region  around  Pittsburgh  ?  What  are  the  chief  industries  of  the  city  ?  How  does  it  rank 
in  population  among  the  cities  of  the  United  States  ?   See  tables  in  Appendix 

is  located  on  the  Susquehannah  River  within  the  moun- 
tain area.  Coal,  iron,  and  steel  are  easily  available,  and 
therefore  manufacturing  has  been  undertaken. 

Baltimore  is  located  on  the  inner 
margin  of  the  Coastal  Plain  at  the 
head  of  an  arm  of  Chesapeake  Bay. 
It  is  a  leading  port  and  an  important 
manufacturing  city.  The  nearness  of 
the  Appalachian  coal  fields  insures 
abundant  fuel  for  manufacturing. 
The  chief  industries  are  the  making 
of  clothing  and.  slaughtering  and 
meat-packing.  Baltimore  is  a  lead- 
ing center  for  the  canning  and  pre- 
serving of  fruits  and  vegetables  and 
for  the  manufacture  of  tobacco. 

Note.    For  a  farther  study  of  cities  in  this 
natural  region  see  pages  22  and  34. 


Fig.  58.  No  building  is  dearer  to  the  people  of  the 
United  States  than  Independence  Hall  in  Phila- 
delphia. Here  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
was  signed  in  1776  and  the  United  States  Consti- 
tution adopted  in  1787 


Rural  occupations.  In  order  to 
learn  what  the  people  in  the  rural 
parts  of  this  region  do  for  a  living, 
study  Figs.  44-48. 


34 


MAP  STUDIES 


MAP  STUDIES 

(Use  also  map  on  page  21) 

New  York  State  is  very  fortunate  in  having  a  great  variety 
of  surface  features,  soils,  and  natural  resources.  The  water- 
ways and  water-power  are  exceedingly  valuable. 

1.  Where  is  the  chief  fruit-producing  district?  2.  What 
mineral  resources  are  shown  in  New  York?  3.  What  special 
reason  was  there  why  the  people  of  this  state  should  develop 
dairy  farming  and  gardening  ? 

Buffalo  is  at  one  end  of  important  trade  routes  from  the 
Great  Lakes  to  the  Atlantic,  and  New  York  and  Boston  are 
at  the  other  ends  of  those  routes.  Immense  supplies  of  food 
and  raw  materials  for  manufacture  are  brought  to  Buffalo. 
Power  is  supplied  from  the  coal,  oil,  and  gas  fields  of  the 
states  farther  south  and  by  wire  from  Niagara  Falls.  The 
city  has  therefore  become  a  manufacturing  center. 

Rochester  owes  its  start  to  the  water-power  at  the  falls  of 
the  Genesee.  Later  the  Erie  Canal,  the  railroads,  and  recently 
the  Barge  Canal,  by  furnishing  good  transportation  facilities, 
have  helped  to  make  it  a  prosperous  manufacturing  city. 

Note.   For  other  cities  in  New  York  State  see  pages  30  and  31. 

Pennsylvania.  1.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  this 
state  ?  2.  What  sources  of  power  are  indicated  on  the  map  ? 
3.  In  what  part  of  the  state  are  the  oil  and  gas  fields?  4.  The 
coal  in  the  western  part  is  soft,  or  bituminous ;  that  in  the 
east  is  hard  coal,  or  anthracite.  5.  What  are  some  of  the  im- 
portant agricultural  products  ?  6.  What  navigable  rivers  are 
available  to  the  people  of  this  state  ? 

Agriculture  is  important,  but  fully  twice  as  many  people 
in  Pennsylvania  are  engaged  in  mining  and  manufacturing 
as  in  farming. 

Note.    For  cities  in  Pennsylvania  see  pages  31,  32,  and  33. 

New  Jersey.  1.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  this 
state  ?  2.  What  mineral  resource  is  found  in  the  mountain 
belt  ?  3.  What  resource  has  led  to  the  development  of  the 
pottery  industry  ?  4.  What  source  of  power  led  to  the  location 
and  helped  in  the  growth  of  Trenton  ?  of  Paterson  ? 

Newark  is  the  largest  city  in  the  state.  It  is  a  manufactur- 
ing center  specializing  in  patent  leather,  jewelry,  paints,  and 
thread.  There  are  many  large  copper  smelters  here.  Jersey 
City  enjoys  the  advantage  of  New  York  harbor.  It  is  a 
busy  manufacturing  city.  Paterson  leads  all  American  cities 
in  the  manufacture  of  silk. 

Trenton,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  Delaware  River. 
It  is  a  fall-line  city  and  the  center  of  the  pottery  industry 
of  the  Atlantic  coast.  Camden,  opposite  Philadelphia,  is  an 
important  shipbuilding  center.  Many  who  work  in  Phila- 
delphia have  their  homes  in  Camden.  Atlantic  City  is  one 
of  the  most  attractive  seaside  resorts  along  the  New  Jersey 
coast. 

Delaware.   1.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  this  state  ? 

2.  What  coal  and  iron  fields  are  accessible  to  Wilmington  ? 

3.  What  advantages  has  this  city  in  transportation  routes  ? 
Wilmington  is  located  where  two  small  streams  from  the 
upland  hilly  belt  have  rapids  in  their  courses  and  furnish 


water-power.  It  is  a  fall-line  city  and  the  most  important  in- 
dustrial center  in  Delaware.  Its  population  is  about  one  half 
of  that  of  the  state.  4.  Locate  on  the  map  the  canal  which 
connects  Delaware  and  Chesapeake  bays.  5.  What  fruit  from 
Delaware  is  best  known  ?  0.  Dover,  the  capital,  is  centrally 
located  in  a  good  agricultural  region. 

Maryland.  1.  What  natural  regions  extend  across  this 
state  ?  See  map  on  pages  2  and  3.  2.  What  sources  of  power 
are  there  in  the  state  ?  3.  What  are  the  chief  crops  of 
the  lowland  area?  4.  What  industries  do  the  shallow  salt 
waters  of  Chesapeake  Bay  encourage?  5.  What  is  the  chief 
seaport  of  this  state  ?  6.  Opposite  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake 
Bay  the  imports  and  exports  are  shown.  With  what  countries 
is  most  of  the  trade  carried  on  ? 

Annapolis  is  beautifully  located  on  the  shores  of  Chesapeake 
Bay.  It  is  the  capital  and  contains  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy.    Baltimore  (*ee  p.  3S). 

Virginia.  1.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  this  state  ? 
The  soil  of  the  Coastal  Plain  is  light  and  sandy,  suitable  for 
raising  fruits,  vegetables,  and  peanuts.  2.  What  appears  to 
be  the  leading  product  of  the  Piedmont  Belt  in  this  state  ? 

3.  What  important  mineral  resource  is  found  in  the  mountain 
area  ?  The  majority  of  the  people  in  Virginia  are  engaged 
in  agricultural  pursuits.  Along  the  coast  and  in  Chesapeake 
Bay  oyster  fisheries  are  very  important. 

Richmond,  the  capital,  is  a  fall-line  city.  The  water-power 
available  is  used  in  numerous  large  manufacturing  indus- 
tries. Norfolk  is  fortunately  situated  near  Hampton  Roads. 
It  receives  large  supplies  of  coal  from  the  highland  region 
and  has  become  one  of  the  chief  coaling  stations  for  vessels 
on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Norfolk  is  one  of  the  largest  peanut 
markets  in  the  world. 

West  Virginia.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
people  of  this  state,  and  yet  West  Virginia  is  very  well  sup- 
plied with  mineral  resources  and  forests.  1.  What  sources  of 
fuel  are  available  ?  2.  What  large  navigable  river  is  on  the 
northwest  border  of  the  state  ? 

Wheeling  is  the  largest  city  in  West  Virginia.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Ohio  River  about  60  miles  below  Pittsburgh.  Large 
supplies  of  coal  and  iron  are  available,  and  this  city,  like  Pitts- 
burgh, has  become  a  great  manufacturing  center.  In  addition 
to  the  iron  and  steel  mills  there  are  large  glassworks. 

Huntington  is  another  large  city  in  West  Virginia  located 
on  the  Ohio  River.  It  has  the  advantages  of  both  railway 
and  water  transportation.  Charleston,  the  capital,  is  in  the 
midst  of  one  of  the  greatest  coal  districts  of  the  state  and  is 
surrounded  by  rich  oil  and  gas  fields. 

GENERAL  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  three  important  seaports  in  this  group  of  states. 
2.  What  food  supplies  do  the  coast  cities  import  in  large  quan- 
tities ?    3.  From  what  countries  do  the  foods  chiefly  come  ? 

4.  What  raw  materials  are  imported  for  manufacture  ? 

5.  What  city  in  Europe  is  in  about  the  same  latitude  as 
New  York  ?  6.  Is  Chicago  farther  north  than  New  York  ? 
7.  What  city  on  the  Mississippi  River  is  in  about  the  same 
latitude  as  Washington,  D.  C.  ? 


82c 


B 


80°  Longitude  C         West 


from        D   Greenwich  76° 


1 1 

MIDDLE    ATLANTIC 
STATES 

POLITICAL  AND  ECONOMIC  MAP 

Scale  of  statute  miles 


Atreal 


QUE 


Scale  of  kilometers 

100  200 


"&  State  capitals 
ss"  Navigable  rivers 

|  Lowlands 


#  Chief  seaports 


_|  Uplands  and  plateaus 


<C\J 


^rotoe 


<sW 


./ 


*Potsdan> 


ternora*^— -v 
platt&Burg  |^ 


Central  plains 


I  Old,  worn-down 
I  mountains 


Military  Camps 

(D  Madison  Barracks,  D  2    ©  Langley  Field,  D  5 


©CampDix,  E3 
©Camp  Meade,  D  4 
©  Camp  Lee,  D  5 
®  Mitchell  Field,  F  3 


MICH 

Detroit 


©  Plattsburg  Barracks,  F  1 
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)  Ginn  and  Company 


36 


APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 


Courteej  of  the  N.  V.  Central  R.  I:. 

Fig.  59.   This  is  the  Clinton  Range  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  spots 

in  the  eastern  United  States.   The  Adirondacks  are  located  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  of 

New  York.   Their  slopes  and  summits  are  covered  with  dense  forests,  and  scattered  among  them 

are  beautiful  lakes.   Are  these  mountains  young  and  rugged  or  old  and  worn  down  ? 


the  interior  sea  was  forced  to  with- 
draw, and  a  part  of  the  uplifted  land 
was  so  compressed  that  the  rocks  were 
folded  and  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
were  made.  The  Blue  Ridge  and  Great 
Smoky  Mountains  are  parts  of  the 
ancient  land  which  bordered  the  in- 
land sea.  The  ridges  in  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  theVirginias,  and  south- 
ward into  Alabama  are  made  of  the 
upturned  edges  of  great  layers  of  rock 
formed  in  that  ancient  sea. 

The  next  chapter  in  the  history  was 
the  wearing  down  of  the  land  by  rivers. 
Each  stream  undertook  the  task-  of 
cutting  a  valley  and  of  carrying  some 
Explanation  of  the  physical  features.  After  studying  of  the  land  back  to  the  sea.  This  work  is  still  going  on, 
the  life  in  this  very  busy  section  of  the  United  States,  and  the  rivers  have  made  wonderfully  interesting  valleys, 
where  so  many  millions  of  people  live,  it  is  interesting  The  great  notches  in  the  Appalachian  Highlands,  such 
to  understand  the  great  physical  history  of  the  region,  as  the  Delaware  Water  Gap,  the  one  near  Harrisburg, 
Over  much  of  this  part  of  the  United  States  there  and  the  one  at  Harpers  Ferry,  were  cut  by  the  streams, 
was  formerly  an  inland  sea.  That  sea  stretched  west- 
ward from  what  is  now  the  Piedmont  Belt  into  the 
present  Mississippi  Valley.  At  that  time  the  Piedmont 
Belt  was  a  mountainous  region.  Rivers  carried  sands, 
gravels,  and  clays  into  that  inland  sea.  In  shallow, 
marshy  places  about  the  margin  of  the  sea  vegetable 
matter  accumulated  which  later  was  buried  and  made 
into  coal ;  bog  iron  ores  were  made ;  limestones  were 
formed  which  later  were  changed  into  marble ;  and  the 

deposits  of  salt 
and  gypsum  were 
left  after  por- 
tions of  the  sea 
had  evaporated. 
During  a  long, 
long  period  the 


Courtesj  of  D.  8.  Geological  Siireej 

Fig.  60.    This  is  the  famous  Natural  Bridge  in 

Virginia.  It  has  been  carved  out  of  limestone  rock 

by  the  stream  which  flows  under  it.   To-day  the 

bridge  is  200  feet  above  the  stream 


sands  and  clays, 
the  vegetable  mat- 
ter,  and  the  iron 
accumulated  on 
the  sea  bottom. 
These  deposits 
came  to  be  thou- 
sands and  thou- 
sands of  feet  in 
depth.  Then,  by 
means  of  a  great 
crustal  movement 
in  the  outer  part 
of  the  earth,  the 
land  was  uplif  ted, 


Courtesy  of  C-  V-  berkej 

Fig.  61.   This  is  the  big  Croton  Dam  near  Croton,  New  York.  It  is  part  of 

the  system  of  waterworks  which  supplies  the  great  city  of  New  York  with 

pure  water  from  the  hilly  region  along  the  Hudson  River.   Why  is  a  good 

water  supply  very  important  to  a  great  city  ? 

Later  the  same  great  ice-sheet  which  invaded  New 
England  also  covered  most  of  New  York  State,  a  part 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  northern  part  of  New  Jersey 
(Fig.  39).  As  in  New  England,  the  ice  disarranged  the 
drainage  and  made  many  waterfalls  (which  now  we 
look  upon  as  natural  resources)  and  many  lakes  ;  for  in- 
stance, those  in  the  Adirondacks  (Fig.  59),  the  Finger 
Lakes  of  New  York  State,  and  the  beautiful  lakes  of 
northern  New  Jersey.  When  the  ice  melted  away,  a 
new  soil  was  left  over  the  invaded  country.    Vegetation 


APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 


37 


began  to  grow  on  these  new  soils,  and  when  men  first 
came  to  live  here  it  was  a  forested  or  grass-covered  region. 
The  time  since  the  glacier  melted  away  is  estimated 
at  about  twenty-five  thousand  years.  During  that  time, 
or  what  is  called  the  postglacial  period  in  North  America, 
relatively  little  has  been  done,  for  it  is  but  a  short  period 
in  the  history  of  this  region.  Man  has  caused  the  chief 
changes  in  the  landscape  since  the  ice  melted  away. 

Home  work.    1.  On  your  outline  map  of  the  United  States, 
color  in  the  boundaries  of  the  Middle  Atlantic  states  ;  print  in  the 

names  of  the  states ; 
locate  and  name 
the  capital  of  each 
state.  2.  Make  a 
list  of  at  least  fifty 
useful  articles  made 
of  iron  or  steel. 


Fig.  62.  These  are  the  middle  falls  of  the  Genesee 

River  at  Portage,  New  York.    The  river  drops 

ninety  feet   here   and  offers  an  opportunity  for 

extensive  water-power  development 


Future.  There 
is  no  doubt  that 
this  region,  with 
its  great  abun- 
dance of  natural 
resources,  will 
become  increas- 
ingly prosperous. 
Its  many  cities 
will  grow  larger, 
greater  manufacturing  plants  will  be  established,  and 
more  railroads  will  be  built.  As  yet  but  little  of  the 
available  water-power  is  used.  The  forests  should  be 
guarded  and  their  cutting  and  planting  directed  by 
expert  foresters,  in  order  that  they  may  become  a 
permanent  source  of  lumber,  pulp,  tar,  and  turpentine. 
We  have  neglected  too  long  in  America  the  care  of 
our  trees.    The  coal,  oil,  and  gas  should  not  be  wasted. 


Fig.  63.   Lumbering  in  the  Adirondacks  is  made  easy  by  the  winter  snows. 

A  great  load  of  logs  like  this  can  be  brought  out  of  the  woods  on  a  sled, 

which  slips  over  the  snow  so  easily  that  a  single  pair  of  horses  can  draw 

it.   Contrast  this  with  Figs.  49  and  50 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  are  the  three  main 
subdivisions  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands  southwest  from  the 
Hudson  River?  2.  Why  should  the  central  division  be  moun- 
tainous ?  3.  Why  did  this  region  not  become  principally  an 
agricultural  region  ? 

4.  What  led  to  the  development  of  manufacturing  ?  5.  What 
must  man  do  to  get  natural  oils  and  gases  out  of  the  ground  ? 
(5.  Where  are  the  chief  sources  of  water-power  in  New  York 
State  ?  7.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  different  uses  of 
gypsum. 

8.  Why  should  the  Appalachian  Mountains  have  heavier  rain- 
fall than  the  land  on  either  side  ?  9.  What  natural  advantages  has 
New  York  City  ?  Albany  ?  Philadelphia  ?  Harrisburg  ?  Pitts- 
burgh ?  Birmingham  ?  10.  What  determined  the  location  of  the 
cities  on  the  southeast  margin  of  this  natural  region  ? 

11.  What  influence  did  the  Appalachian  Highlands  have  upon 
the  distribution  of  settlements  in  North  America  before  the 
Revolutionary  War  ?  12.  What  were  the  chief  lines  of  westward 
migration  followed  by  the  pioneers  through  these  highlands  ? 


Fig.  64.  The  iron,  coal,  and  limestone  of  the  southern  end  of  the  Appalach- 
ian Highlands  in  Alabama  have  led  to  the  growth  of  a  great  iron-and-steel 
industry  in  and  near  Birmingham.  In  addition  to  iron  and  steel,  this  dis- 
trict produces  all  kinds  of  finished  steel  products,  among  them  structural 
steel  of  all  kinds  and  pressed-steel  cars.  This  picture  is  an  interior  view  of 


part  of  a  great  pressed-steel  car  plant  near  Birmingham.  This  plant  can 
turn  out  twenty-five  complete  cars  every  day.  Many  of  the  steel  products  of 
Birmingham  are  floated  on  barges  down  the  Warrior  and  Tombigbee  rivers  to 
Mobile  for  export.  Mobile  is  not  only  the  chief  port  of  Alabama  but  one  of 
the  leading  ports  of  the  Gulf  coast.   What  are  its  most  important  exports  ? 


38 


INTERIOR  HIGHLANDS 


)  K«j.«one  View  Co. 

Fig.  65.  These  men  are  sorting  and  packing  apples  in  the  famous  Ozark  fruit 

region.    The  Ozark  Plateau   is   especially  well   fitted  for  fruit-growing, 

because  it  is  almost  never  visited  by  destructive  frosts.    Can  you  explain 

this  ?  Notice  how  the  man  at  the  left  is  finishing  packing  the  barrel 

INTERIOR  HIGHLANDS 

Physical  features.  Use  maps  on  pages  25  and  55.  In 
southern  Missouri,  northern  Arkansas,  and  eastern  Okla- 
homa are  the  Interior  Highlands.  They  are  a  westward 
continuation  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands.  In  the  south 
the  Ouachita  Mountains  are  like  the  Appalachian  Moun- 
tain ridges,  made  of  the  upturned  edges  of  hard  layers 
of  rock.  The  valley  of  the  Arkansas  River  is  just  north 
of  these  mountains,  and  still  farther  north  come  the 
Boston  Mountains.  These  mountains  have  been  carved 
out  of  a  plateau  by  rivers  which  have  cut  their  valleys 
deep  into  the  plateau  surface.  The  St.  Francois  Moun- 
tains in  Missouri  are  composed  of  very  ancient  rocks  like 
those  in  the  Great  Smoky  Mountains  in  North  Carolina. 
The  rest  of  the  region,  north  of  the  Boston  Mountains,  is 
a  low  plateau  more  or  less  dissected  by  rivers.  It  is  called 
the  Ozark  Plateau  (Fig.  65).    See  map  opposite  page  8:2. 

West  of  the  Ouachita  Mountains,  and  rising  above 
the  plains,  are  two  small  mountain  areas,  one  known  as 
the  Arbuckle  Mountains  and  the  other  as  the  Wichita 
Mountains.  In  many  parts  of  the  country  they  would 
be  called  hills.  They  rise  from  400  to  1500  feet  above 
the  surrounding  plains,  but  there  are  so  few  elevations 
in  that  region  that  they  are  called  mountains. 

This  region  extends  northward  to  the  Missouri  River 
and  northeastward  to  the  Mississippi  River.  The  White 
and  Arkansas  rivers  are  the  chief  drainage  lines  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  region. 

Natural  resources  and  occupations.  This  region  is  nota- 
bly rich  in  lead  and  zinc.  The  mines  occur  chiefly  in 
southwestern  Missouri  and  northern  Arkansas  (Fig.  66). 


The  Boston  Mountains  and  the  neighboring  country  to 
the  north  are  heavily  forested,  so  that  lumbering  is  one 
of  the  principal  occupations  in  northern  Arkansas. 

The  Arkansas  valley  is  a  fertile  farm  land  bordering 
the  Arkansas  River,  and  many  of  the  smaller  valleys  are 
suitable  for  farming.  The  raising  of  fruit  has  become 
an  important  occupation  in  northern  Arkansas  and 
southern  Missouri. 

Cities.  Jefferson  City,  the  capital  of  Missouri,  is  located 
at  the  northern  margin  of  the  Interior  Highlands  and 
on  the  Missouri  River.  Springfield  and  Joplin  in  Missouri 
are  among  the  more  important  places,  and  Fayetteville, 
Arkansas,  where  the  state  university  is  located,  is  in  the 
midst  of  a  farming  and  fruit-raising  district.  Fort  Smith, 
Arkansas,  is  a  manufacturing  and  trading  center.  Near 
that  city  are  coal,  oil,  and  natural  gas  which  may  be 
used  for  fuel. 

Future.  The  future  of  this  region  depends  chiefly  upon 
the  further  development  of  the  mining  of  lead  and  zinc, 
and  upon  agriculture  and  forestry.  The  Ouachita  Moun- 
tains are  as  yet  but  sparsely  settled.  They  serve  as  a 
grazing  land,  and  perhaps,  with  the  ever-increasing 
demand  for  wool,  more  sheep  will  be  raised  there. 
The  large  supplies  of  fuel  near  Fort  Smith  and  farther 
west  in  Oklahoma  should  encourage  an  expansion  in 
manufacturing. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Name  and  locate  the  moun- 
tain areas  within  this  region.  2.  What  are  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  people  ?  3.  What  further  use  might  be  made  of  the  moun- 
tainous portions  ?  4.  What  large  river  flows  through  this  region  ? 
What  other  navigable  streams  are  available  ?  5.  What  are  the 
chief  natural  resources  ?  6.  Why  is  there  not  a  large  population 
in  this  region  ?    7.  Name  the  chief  cities  of  this  natural  region. 


ifj)  Key-iwie  \ 


Fig.  66.    This  is  a  view  of  the  zinc  and  lead  mines  near  Joplin,  Missouri. 

At  the  left  is  the  tall  shaft  house,  which  is  built  over  the  mine.    At  the 

right,  the  building  with  the  tall  chimneys  is  the  smelter,  where  the  lead 

and  zinc  are  melted  and  separated  from  the  sulphur  in  the  ores 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


39 


Fig.  67.  This  is  an  aeroplane  view  of  the  beautiful  falls  of  the  Niagara 
River.  On  the  left  are  the  American  Falls  and  on  the  right  the  Horseshoe, 
or  Canadian,  Falls.  Because  they  belong  partly  to  the  United  States  and 
partly  to  Canada,  the  two  governments  have  made  a  treaty  regarding  the 

CENTRAL  PLAINS 

This  is  not  only  a  remarkable  farming  district  but  it 
is  so  fortunate  in  waterways,  water-power,  coal,  oil,  gas, 
and  many  mineral  resources  that  it  has  become  a  great 
industrial  district.  It  is  one  of  the  busiest  regions  in 
the  United  States. 

Location  and  extent.  Use  map  on  pages  2  and  3.  The 
Central  Plains  form  part  of  each  of  the  states  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  Valley  and  extend  eastward  into  New 
York  State.  They  extend  westward  from  the  Appala- 
chian Highlands,  and  northward  from  the  Coastal  Plain 
and  Interior  Highlands,  to  the  margin  of  the  Laurentian 
Uplands.  East  of  Lake  Superior  the  boundary  of  the 
Central  Plains  region  is  north  of  the  United  States. 


. 

<3k '                             WmKF' 

II  -/ 

ssSHBnl 

" 

Fig.  68.  These  men  are  Michigan  grape-growers.  They  raise  the  sweet 
Concord  and  Niagara  grapes  which  are  popular  throughout  the  country  as 
table  fruit.  In  what  part  of  Michigan  is  this  industry  located  ?  In  what 
other  parts  of  the  eastern  United  States  is  grape-growing  important? 
Why  are  these  areas  near  bodies  of  water  ? 


Wide  World  Photo* 

use  of  the  water-power.  If  all  the  water  flowing  over  the  falls  were  used, 
5,800,000  horse-power  could  be  developed  for  use  in  manufacturing.  But 
this  would  destroy  the  beauty  of  the  falls,  so  the  two  governments  have 
agreed  never  to  use  more  than  one  fourth  of  the  available  water-power 

In  traveling  westward  we  do  not  find  a  sudden  change 
in  the  type  of  country  when  passing  from  the  Central 
Plains  to  the  Great  Plains.  We  gradually  leave  a  well- 
watered  region,  where  general  farming  is  carried  on  and 
where  there  are  wood-lots  and  some  forested  areas,  and 
come  into  a  country  where  there  is  little  but  broad 
expanses  of  grasslands  suitable  for  grazing. 

Supplement  this  study  of  the  map  by  a  careful  exam- 
ination of  Figs.  67-91,  inclusive. 

Climate.  The  prevailing  winds  in  the  Central  Plains 
are  from  the  southwest,  and  the  storms  which  bring  the 
daily  weather  changes  move  eastward  over  the  area.  In 
the  southern  portion,  where  the  Central  Plains  extend 
into  Texas,  the  weather  is  never  very  cold ;  but  far  to 
the  northwest,  in  Minnesota  and  the  DakotaSj  the  ther- 
mometer falls  to  30  and  even  40  degrees  below  zero 
during  the  winter. 

Snows  are  heavy  in  the  northern  portion  but  light 
in  the  southern  parts.  The  rainfall,  except  at  the  very 
western  margin,  is  enough  for  agriculture,  and  much 
of  it  comes  during  the  growing  season  of  the  plants. 
See  rainfall  map  on  page  82. 

The  Great  Lakes  modify  the  climate  by  cooling  the  air 
that  blows  over  them  in  summer  and  warming  the  air 
that  blows  over  them  in  the  fall.  That  is  because  the 
lands  become  heated  more  rapidly  than  the  bodies  of 
water,  and  when  fall  comes  they  cool  off  more  rapidly 
than  the  water.  Sometimes  the  heat  that  is  given  off 
by  the  water  prevents  frosts  on  the  lands  near  by.  This 
is  especially  true  in  the  southern  peninsula  of  Michigan, 
and  so  that  part  of  the  state  has  become  a  fruit-raising 
district  (Fig.  68  and  map,  p.  45).  The  western  part  of 
New  York  State  and  the  northern  part  of  Ohio  are  also 
for  this  reason  excellent  fruit-producing  districts. 


40 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


addition  of  decayed  vegetable  and  animal  matter  always 
helps  to  make  a  good  soil. 

Oil  and  gas.  The  chief  center  for  the  refining  of  oil 
near  Chicago  is  Whiting,  Indiana.  When  the  oil  flows 
from  the  ground  or  is  pumped  out,  it  is  commonly  put 
into  reservoirs  or  tanks,  or  started  directly  through 
large  pipe  lines  to  the  centers  where  it  is  to  be  used. 


Fig.  69.  The3e  men  are  harvesting  the  seed  of  the  famous  Kentucky  blue 
grass.  This  grass,  which  affords  excellent  pasturage  for  stock,  takes  its 
name  from  the  bluish  color  of  the  seeds  before  they  ripen.  The  Blue  Grass 
Country  is  in  north-central  Kentucky.   What  are  the  chief  products  here  ? 

Natural  Resources 


Fig.  70.    The  rich  limestone  soils  of  Kentucky  have  made  it  the  leading 

tobacco-producing  state  in  the  country.    The  tobacco  in  this  picture  has 

been  cut.   After  the  stalks  have  been  exposed  to  the  sun  for  a  while,  they 

will  be  carried  to  large  barns  and  hung  up  to  dry 


Soils.  First  in  importance  are  the  soils.  They  are 
fundamental  to  the  prosperity  of  any  people.  This  exten- 
sive area  is  especially  fortunate  in  having  a  large  variety 
of  very  fertile  soils.  Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Oil  is  pumped  through  pipes  from  the  Kansas  oil  fields 
northern  portion  most  of  the  soils  are  of  glacial  origin,  as  far  as  Chicago, —  a  distance  of  nearly  600  miles.  The 
The  great  ice-sheets  (Fig.  14)  which  invaded  the  United  oil  from  southern  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio  is  sent  in 
States  covered  a  large  portion  of  the  Central  Plains,     that  way  to  the  outskirts  of  Chicago.    Part  of  the  oil 


See  map  on  pages  2  and  3.  Each 
time  the  ice  came  it  brought  Cana- 
dian soils.  It  ground  up,  or  pulver- 
ized, the  rocks  as  it  moved  southward, 
and  upon  melting  left  everything 
that  it  had  picked  up  on  its  way. 

In  the  driftless  area  of  the  upper 
Mississippi  Valley  {see  map,  p.  45) 
there  are  no  glacial  soils,  and  south 
of  the  limit  of  ice  action  the  Cen- 
tral Plains  are  without  glacial  drift. 
In  those  parts  the  soils  have  been 
formed  by  the  decay  or  breaking  up 
of  the  rock  formations.  Shale  is 
simply  a  hardened  clay,  and  when 
softened  and  broken  up  into  small 
particles  it  becomes  a  clay  again. 
Limestones  also  make  clay  soils.  The 
rich  soils  of  the  Blue  Grass  Coun- 
try of  Kentucky  came  from  the 
decay  of  limestones  (Figs.  69,  70). 
When  sandstones  are  broken  up  fine 
enough,  they  make  sandy  soils.    The 


)  Cnderwood  &  Underwuinl 

Fig.  71.  In  Minnesota  the  iron  deposits  are  so  near 
the  surface  that  mining  consists  simply  in  digging 
out  the  ore  from  the  sides  of  a  great  pit  in  the 
earth  and  loading  it  onto  cars  which  are  run 
directly  into  the  pit 


of  Oklahoma  is  sent  northward,  and 
part  is  sent  southward  for  shipment 
from  Gulf  ports.  Much  of  the  Texas 
oil  is  piped  to  the  Gulf  ports. 

The  natural  gases  have  long  been 
used  as  a  source  of  fuel  and  light  in 
the  districts  where  they  are  found. 
When  a  hole  is  bored  into  the  rocks 
where  there  is  gas,  the  gas  will  come 
out  freely  and  must  be  captured  and 
stored  for  use.  In  some  portions  of 
the  country,  where  preparations  have 
not  been  made  to  save  the  gas,  it  has 
all  escaped.  Sometimes  the  escaping 
gas  from  wells  has  become  lighted 
and  for. many  years  has  burned  day 
and  night  like  a  great  torch.  The 
gas  thus  wasted  could  have  brought 
comforts  and  even  wealth  to  thou- 
sands of  people. 

Coal  and  iron.  When  coal  and  iron 
are  found  near  together,  manufactur- 
ing industries  are  almost  certain  to  be 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


41 


developed.  This  was  the  case  in  the  Appalachian  High- 
lands, where  Pittsburgh  and  Birmingham  are  located, 
and  in  the  chain  of  cities  at  the  eastern  margin  of  the 
Appalachian  Highlands. 

The  coal  supply  in  this  region  is  abundant.  There 
are  thousands  of  square  miles  underlaid  with  a  good 
grade  of   soft,   or  bituminous,  coal.    At  each  locality 


l^^iiflfcfeA^JftM      ^ ,^m 


Fig.  72.  Along  the  water  front  at  Buffalo  you  can  see  the  big  lake  freighters 
loading  and  unloading  their  cargoes.  Hundreds  of  these  freighters  are  in  use 
on  the  Great  Lakes,  running  between  the  eastern  and  western  ports.  What 
products  do  they  carry  going  east?  going  west  ?  At  what  ports  do  they  call? 

where  tests  have  been  made,  there  is  more  than  one 
seam  or  layer  of  coal  beneath  the  surface. 

The  iron  used  in  the  Central  Plains  comes  from  the 
Laurentian  Uplands  just  outside  the  region  (Fig.  71). 
The  iron  is  shipped  to  Milwaukee,  Chicago,  South 
Chicago,  Gary,  Detroit,  Toledo,  Cleveland,  Erie,  and 
Buffalo.  Each  one  of  these  cities  has  been  greatly  bene- 
fited by  the  supply  of  iron  coming  by  water,  and  by  the 
nearness  of  the  coal  and  oil  fields. 

Copper  is  brought  from  the  Lake  Superior  mining 
district  to  each  of  the  large  industrial  cities  on  the 
Great  Lakes.  Some  of  it  is  reshipped  for  use  in  the 
more  distant  Eastern  cities. 

Lead  and  zinc.  Much  of  the  lead  and  zinc  ores  of  the 
Interior  Highlands  is  shipped  northward  to  the  vicinity 
of  Chicago.  In  addition  to  that  supply  the  Central  Plains 
have  a  lead-and-zinc-producing  district  which  extends 
from  southwestern  Wisconsin 
into  northwestern  Illinois. 

Lead  and  zinc  smelters  are 
located  at  La  Salle  and  Peru, 
Illinois,  where  there  is  coal 
that  is  used  in  smelting  the 
ores.  Chicago  and  the  other 
manufacturing  cities  of  the 
Central  Plains  are  ready  to  buy 
such  useful  metals  as  fast  as 
the  smelting  plants  are  able  to 
produce  them. 


ohnM.  Uaike 


Fig.  73.  This  is  a  model  of  a  salt-producing  plant  in  New  York.  The  salt  is 
found  in  a  bed'100  feet  thick  and  2200  feet  underground.  Fresh  water  is  forced 
down  the  pipe  beneath  the  derrick  at  the  right  and  allowed  to  dissolve  all 
the  salt  it  can.  Then  the  brine  is  pumped  up  the  pipe  at  the  left  into  tanks, 
where  heat  is  used  to  evaporate  the  water.  The  unrefined  salt  which  is  left 
is  then  cleaned  and  purified  and  finally  put  into  barrels  ready  for  market 

Salt  has  been  discovered  far  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground  at  several  places  in  New  York  and  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  Michigan.  New  York  contains  some  of  the 
most  valuable  salt  mines  in  the  world,  and  Michigan 
now  produces  thousands  of  tons  of  salt  each  year. 

Waterways.  The  Great  Lakes  furnish  the  most  re- 
markable continuous  route  of  inland  waterways  in  the 
world,  and  are  the  largest  bodies  of  fresh  water  (Fig.  74). 
In  St.  Marys  River,  which  flows  from  Lake  Superior  to 
Lake  Huron,  there  are  rapids  ;  and  in  the  Niagara  River 
there  are  falls  (Fig.  67).  The  rapids  of  the  St.  Marys 
River  are  avoided  by  the  two  Soo  Canals,  one  on  the 
Canadian  side  and  one  on  the  American  side ;  and  the 
falls  in  the  Niagara  River  (Fig.  67),  that  made  all  travel 
by  boat  between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  impossible, 
are  avoided  by  the  Welland  Canal.  See  map  on  page  35. 
By  means  of  these  canals  a  continuous  waterway  is  pro- 
vided from  Lake  Superior  to  the  St.  Lawrence  River. 


Fig.  74.   This  diagram  shows  the  total  depth  of  each  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  height  of  its  surface  above 

sea  level.   Study  the  figure  carefully.   Which  lake  has  the  highest  elevation  above  sea  level  ?   Between  what 

two  lakes  is  there  the  greatest  difference  in  elevation  ?   What  is  the  deepest  lake  ?  the  second  deepest  ?  Are 

all  the  lake  bottoms  below  sea  level  ?   What  river  carries  the  lake  waters  to  the  ocean  ? 


42 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Portions  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  are  so  blocked  by  The  Mississippi  River  has  been  dammed  at  Keokuk, 
rock  islands  and  rock  ledges  in  the  channel  that  canals  Iowa  (Fig.  75),  and  the  electricity  generated  there  is 
have  been  built  parallel  to  parts  of  the  stream.    With     transmitted  more  than  a  hundred  miles  to  be  used  for 


Fig.  75.    This  is  the  great  dam  across  the  Mississippi  River  at  Keokuk, 
Iowa.  Over  300,000  horse-power  is  developed  here,  and  of  this  60,000  horse- 
power goes  to  St.  Louis  over  a  transmission  line  137  miles  long.  Why  is  it 
wise  to  harness  the  rivers  of  the  United  States  in  this  way  ? 


the  help  of  these  canals 
ocean-going  vessels  may  go 
directly  from  the  mouth 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  to  the 
westernmost  lake  ports. 

In  addition  to  being  of 
great  value  in  commerce, 
the  Great  Lakes  provide 
large  supplies  of  fish  and 
furnish  water  to  many  of 
the  cities  on  their  shores. 
The  lakes  are  a  constant 
source  of  pleasure  to  those 
who  live  near  them  or  have 
opportunities  to  travel  upon 
them.  Thousands  of  summer 
homes  border  their  shores. 

The  Mississippi,  Missouri,  Ohio,  and  many  of  their 
tributaries  are  navigable.  See  maps  on  pages  45  and  55. 
They  form  a  wonderful  system  of  inland  waterways  that 
are  now  used  a  great  deal  but  should  be  used  more  as 
trade  with  Central  and  South  America  increases. 

Water-power.  To-day  part  of  the  water  on  the  Amer- 
ican side  of  Niagara  Falls,  and  part  on  the  Canadian 
side,  is  taken  off  through  great  tubes,  or  tunnels,  and 
made  to  turn  huge  wheels.  In  the  power  plants  these 
wheels  are  connected  with  dynamos  so  that  electrical 
energy  is  generated.  This  energy  is  not  only  used  near 
at  hand  but  is  sold  to  consumers  many  miles  away,  demanded  great  quantities  of  lumber ;  furniture  had  to 
Some  of  the  power  is  utilized  to  run  factories  and  car  be  made ;  factories  and  packing-houses  required  boxes ; 
lines  and  to  furnish  light  in  neighboring  cities  and  wooden  blocks  were  used  in  paving  streets ;  and  wood 
towns.  Niagara  Falls  are  thus  harnessed  and  made  to  was  needed  in  the  making  of  railway  and  street  cars, 
accomplish  a  great  amount  of  work  for  man  (Fig.  67).     To-day  other  materials  are  taking  the  place  of  wood. 


light  and  power. 

Power  is  also  obtained 
where  the  waters  of  the 
Chicago  Sanitary  Canal  are 
discharged  into  the  Des 
Plaines  River.  By  cutting 
a  deep  canal  the  waters  of 
Lake  Michigan  have  been 
forced  to  flow  southwest- 
ward.  The  canal  was  cut 
in  order  to  carry  the  sew- 
age from  the  Chicago  dis- 
trict into  the  Mississippi 
drainage  system. 

In  numerous  other  places 
water-power  has  been  em- 
ployed on  a  smaller  scale, 
and  many  more  streams  can  be  so  utilized. 

Forests  and  their  uses.  When  settlers  came  into  the 
region  of  the  Central  Plains,  timber  was  abundant. 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  parts  of  Minnesota  were  over- 
grown with  forests  of  soft  woods.  The  southeastern  por- 
tion of  the  region  had  a  very  valuable  forest  of  hard 
woods.  There  still  remains  a  great  deal  of  timber,  but 
the  rapid  increase  in  population,  with  the  consequent 
demand  for  building  material,  has  led  to  the  destruction 
of  many  of  the  forests.  Farmers  needed  lumber  for  their 
homes,  barns,  and  fences,  and  the  building  of  large  cities 


Fig.  76.  The  buildings  of  this  great  automobile-manufacturing  plant  at 
Detroit  cover  64  acres  of  ground,  and  it  turns  out  $40,000,000  worth  of 
automobiles  each  year.  Twelve  thousand  people  get  their  living  by  working  in 
the  different  departments  of  this  great  factory.  The  first  modern  automobiles 


were  made  in  France,  but  the  United  States  now  manufactures  and  exports 
more  than  any  other  country.  Detroit  is  the  center  of  the  industry  in  this 
country,  and  the  automobiles  and  motor  trucks  manufactured  here  are  sent 
all  over  the  world.  Where  are  the  raw  materials  for  this  industry  obtained  ? 


CENTRAL   PLAINS 


43 


Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  owes  its  development  largely  Limestones,  which  supply  the  lime  needed  in  making 
to  the  furniture  business.  Chicago  is  a  great  lumber  mortar,  are  almost  everywhere  available,  and  some  of 
market    and    also    a    furniture-manufacturing    center,     the  limestones  have  just  the  right  composition  to  be 


Vessels  from  northern  lake  ports 
bring  huge  loads  of  lumber  to  the 
docks  bordering  the  Chicago  River. 
The  quantities  of  lumber  which  were 
easily  accessible  to  Detroit  led  people 
in  that  city  to  manufacture  all  kinds 
of  vehicles.  When  the  automobile 
was  invented,  plants  which  had 
formerly  manufactured  wagons  and 
carriages  turned  easily  to  the  man- 
ufacture of  motor  cars,  and  Detroit 
has  become  the  chief  center  of  this 
industry  (Fig.  76).  South  Bend,  In- 
diana, was  a  center  to  which  lumber, 
as  well  as  iron  and  steel,  could  con- 
veniently be  brought ;  and  the  man- 
ufacture of  wagons,  carriages,  and 
plows  has  developed  there  on  a  large 
scale  (Fig.  77). 

But  all  of  this  important  work 
could  have  been  accomplished  with- 
out the  destruction  of  the  great  forests  if  care  had  been 
taken  in  the  cutting  of  the  trees.  Mature  and  defective 
trees  might  just  as  well  have  been  cut  and  the  others 
allowed  to  grow.  Scientific  conservation  of  the  forests 
would  have  meant  a  permanent  supply  of  excellent 
lumber. 

Building  materials.  Throughout  most  of  the  Central 
Plains  the  glacial  materials  at  the  surface  are  valuable 
in  construction  work.  Sands  and  gravels  have  been 
used  for  road  material,  for  roof  coverings,  and  more 
recently  in  large  quantities  in  concrete  construction. 
Glacial  clays  have  been 
made  into  common  build- 
ing brick.  There  are  brick 
plants  which  have  been 
turning  out  thousands  of 
bricks  nearly  every  day  for 
years  in  order  to  supply  the 
demand  due  to  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  large  cities. 
The  clays  have  also  been 
used  to  make  tiles  (Fig.  78) 
and  terra  cotta.  There  are 
clays  other  than  those  of 
glacial  origin,  and  there  are 
shales  which  can  be  crushed 
and  used  as  clays  in  the 
manufacture  of  terra  cotta. 


Fig.  77.   The  motor  plow  is  one  of  the  numerous 
modern  agricultural  implements  which  are  manu- 
factured in  the  great  cities  of  the  Central  Plains 
for  use  on  the  farming  lands 


Fig.  78.  This  is  a  great  plant  in  Illinois  for  the  manufacture  of  sewer  pipes. 

The  pipes  are  molded  from  clay  and  then  put  into  the  kilns  and  baked  until 

they  are  very  hard.  The  kilns  are  the  circular  buildings  with  white-domed 

roofs.   Where  does  the  clay  for  this  industry  come  from  ? 


used  in  making  cement.  The  total 
supply  of  limestones  that  can  be  used 
in  making  cement  is  enormous.  This 
is  of  great  importance  since  concrete 
construction  has  become  so  common. 
Limestones  are  also  used  in  building 
roads  and  in  laying  the  foundations 
of  buildings. 

At  Bedford,  Indiana,  one  of  the 
best  building  stones  in  America  is 
found.  It  is  a  limestone  with  a  re- 
markable uniformity  of  color  and 
texture,  which  makes  it  possible  to 
carve  decorative  features  out  of  it. 
The  Bedford  limestone  is  sent  to 
many  parts  of  the  United  States. 

In  some  places  sandstone  is  ground 
up  into  sand  and  used  in  manufactur- 
ing glass  and  certain  kinds  of  bricks. 
Most  of  the  granites  and  marbles 
used  in  the  Central  Plains  must  be 
shipped  in  from  other  geographic  regions. 

Home  work.  If  there  is  a  brickyard  near  your  home,  find 
out  where  the  clay  comes  from  and  how  it  is  made  into  bricks. 

Summary  of  natural  resources.  This  region  is  a  leader 
in  both  agricultural  and  industrial  life.  Of  first  impor- 
tance are  the  level  or  gently  rolling  lands  with  their 
rich  soils  and  abundant  summer  rainfall.  Then  there 
are  the  coal,  oil,  and  gas  which  furnish  heat  and  power. 
Next,  come  the  waterways  and  available  water-power,  the 
supplies  of  salt,  lead,  and  zinc  within  the  natural  region, 

and  iron  and  copper  from 
just  outside.  Add  to  these 
the  forests,  the  various 
building  materials,  and  the 
ease  with  which  railroads 
may  be  built,  and  it  may 
be  truly  said  that  no  area 
of  equal  size  in  the  world  is 
so  fortunate  in  amount  and 
variety  of  natural  wealth. 
Under  these  circumstances 
it  is  not  strange  that  so 
many  men  have  migrated 
westward  from  the  cities 
of  the  East  to  make  their 
homes  and  their  livelihood 
in  the  Central  Plains. 


44 


MAP  STUDIES 


MAP  STUDIES 

Kentucky.  1.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  this  state? 
2.  What  part  of  the  state  is  the  roughest  ?  3.  What  navigable 
rivers  are  available?  4.  The  central  and  western  portions 
have  excellent  soils,  and  agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation 
in  Kentucky.  What  appears  to  be  the  leading  agricultural 
product  of  Kentucky? 

5.  What  mineral  resources  in  this  state  are  indicated  on 
the  map  ?  G.  Locate  Mammoth  Cave.  In  this  vicinity  over 
40  miles  of  wonderful  underground  passageways  have  been 
explored  (Fig.  91,  p.  52). 

Frankfort,  the  capital,  is  in  the  midst  of  the  famous  Blue 
Grass  Country,  where  there  is  a  rich  clay  soil.  Louisville,  the 
largest  city,  is  at  the  Falls  of  the  Ohio.  Tobacco  manufac- 
turing and  slaughtering  and  meat  packing  are  important  here. 
Covington  is  an  important  industrial  center  opposite  Cincinnati. 

Ohio.  1.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  this  state  ? 
The  eastern  portion  is  much  rougher  than  the  central  and 
western  parts.  2.  What  part  of  Ohio  has  glacial  soils?  See 
map  on  pages  2  and  3. 

3.  What  are  the  chief  crops  ?  4.  What  sources  of  fuel  are 
found  in  the  state  ?  5.  What  navigable  waters  border  the 
state?  6.  Judging  from  the  products,  name  the  leading 
occupations.    7.  Describe  the  location  of  the  capital. 

Cleveland  (Fig.  79).  Toledo  is  on  the  highway  of  travel  and 
shipment  east  and  west.  It  is  fortunate  in  having  an  excellent 
harbor  with  about  20  miles  of  docks.  Dayton  is  a  manufacturing 
center  and  is  in  the  midst  of  a  prosperous  farming  district. 
Cincinnati  has  over  10  miles  of  water  front  and  very  good 
railroad  connections.    Columbus  is  the  capital  of  Ohio. 

Indiana.  1.  Describe  the  surface  features  of  this  state. 
2.  What  navigable  waters  are  available  ?  3.  What  are  the 
chief  farm  products  ?  4.  What  sources  of  fuel  are  there  in 
the  state  ? 

Indianapolis,  the  capital,  is  an  important  railroad  center  and 
is  surrounded  by  most  productive  farming  lands.  An  abun- 
dance of  raw  material  and  coal  is  available,  and  therefore 
manufacturing  has  been  undertaken.  Evansville  is  an  important 
railroad  and  industrial  center  on  the  Ohio  River. 

South  Bend  (see  p.  43).  Fort  Wayne  is  an  important  trading 
and  manufacturing  cit3r.  Terre  Haute  is  in  the  midst  of  a  pros- 
perous farming  district  and  is  a  busy  trading  center.  Gary  is 
the  steel-manufacturing  center  of  northern  Indiana. 

Illinois  is  entirely  within  the  Central  Plains  and  has  a 
rolling  surface.  It  is  a  land  of  rich  soils  underlain  with  mineral 
resources  of  very  great  value.  1.  What  are  the  chief  agricul- 
tural products  ?  2.  What  other  products  come  from  the  farms? 

3.  What  are  the  sources  of  fuel  and  power  ?  4.  What 
navigable  waters  border  or  are  within  the  state  of  Illinois? 
5.  What  large  cities  are  located  on  navigable  waters  ?  6.  Why 
is  the  central  location  of  Springfield  favorable  for  a  capital  city  ? 

Chicago  is  so  situated  that  raw  materials  come  by  water  and 
by  rail  to  supply  the  great  factories  of  this  city.  What  in- 
dustries have  the  farm  products  developed  in  Chicago  ?  See 
Figs.  88,  89,  and  90. 

Peoria  is  beautifully  located  on  a  high  bluff  bordering  the 
Illinois  River  near  large  grain-producing  a^eas.    East  St.  Louis 


is  an  important  railroad  center  and  has  also  the  advantage 
of  transportation  by  water.  Trading  and  manufacturing  are 
actively  carried  on.  Rockford  is  in  an  excellent  farming  district 
and  is  also  a  manufacturing  center. 

Michigan.  1.  What  natural  region  extends  throughout  the 
southern  peninsula  of  Michigan?  2.  What  natural  regions 
extend  into  the  northern  peninsula  ?  3.  What  bodies  of  water 
border  these  two  great  peninsulas?  4.  Judging  from  the 
products,  describe  the  leading  occupations  of  the  people  in 
the  different  parts  of  this  state.  5.  What  mineral  resources 
are  indicated  ?    6.  Name  and  locate  the  capital. 

Detroit  is  the  largest  city  in  Michigan.  See  also  page  43  and 
Fig.  70. 

Grand  Rapids  (see  p.  43).  Saginaw  and  Bay  City  are  manufac- 
turing centers  on  the  Saginaw  River.  Flint  is  one  of  the  leading 
cities  in  the  manufacture  of  automobiles.  Kalamazoo  is  in  a  rich 
farming  land  and  is  favored  by  excellent  railway  service. 

Wisconsin.  1.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  this  state  ? 
2.  What  is  meant  by  the  "  driftless  area"  ?  3.  What  navigable 
waters  are  directly  available?  4.  What  mineral  resources 
are  shown  on  the  map  of  Wisconsin  ?  5.  What  are  the 
leading  farm  products  ?  6.  Why  should  dairying  be  profit- 
able here  ? 

Madison,  the  capital,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the  shores  of 
two  small  lakes.  It  is  the  educational  center  for  the  state  and 
contains  many  attractive  public  buildings.  Milwaukee,  the 
largest  city  in  the  state,  has  the  advantage  of  being  on  Lake 
Michigan  and  near  a  very  productive  farming  district.  It  is 
a  commercial  and  manufacturing  center. 

Superior  is  fortunately  located  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior 
in  the  vicinity  of  iron,  lumber,  and  grain.  Racine  and  Kenosha 
are  important  centers  for  the  manufacture  of  automobiles  and 
various  kinds  of  farm  implements.  Oshkosh  is  on  the  shore  of 
Lake  Winnebago  near  a  good  farming  district  and  has  large 
sash  and  door  factories. 

GENERAL  QUESTIONS 

1.  Name  five  natural  advantages  that  the  people  have  in 
this  part  of  the  country.  2.  Locate  the  so-called  corn  belt. 
Why  are  swine  raised  in  large  numbers  in  this  belt  ?  3.  What 
state  produces  a  large  supply  of  beet  sugar  ? 

4.  Where  are  the  tobacco-raising  regions  in  these  states? 
5.  To  what  places  should  you  go  to  see  the  mining  of  copper, 
iron,  lead,  zinc,  or  coal  ?  6.  What  food  supplies  do  the  people 
in  this  district  get  from  the  Great  Lakes  ? 

7.  The  greatest  harvester  plant  in  the  world  is  in  Chicago. 
Why  is  that  a  good  location  for  this  industry  ?  8.  Why  has 
Chicago  become  a  great  meat-packing  center  ?  9.  What  Atlan- 
tic coast  city  is  in  about  the  same  longitude  as  Cleveland  ? 

10.  What  large  city  in  Canada  is  in  about  the  same  latitude 
as  Duluth?  11.  Is  Omaha  or  Chicago  farther  from  the  equa- 
tor ?  12.  Where  should  you  like  to  go  for  a  summer  vacation 
within  these  states  ?  13.  Plan  out  a  pleasure  trip  and  describe 
what  you  should  expect  to  see. 

Home  work.  Add  the  boundaries  of  these  states  to  your  map 
of  the  United  States.  Print  in  the  names  of  the  states,  the  capitals, 
and  a  few  of  the  large  cities. 


V. 


B        ZSgSL^^c^^^ylSLE  ROYAL 

*,fj^      (To  Michigan) 


A 


JNJ 

Muthl 


r  i  M||roP  KJ5*"-"  As 


J>  cm  ft    above  sea    level 

""         ■" M4N 


„  ,   PENH&njLAT~  Keweenaw  Pt, 
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COPPER  lifljmcdck 
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^N.. Spooler  Y\&Sr^k 


Cumberland  *      .^'ce  Uke^PhiljjrK, 

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ySNew  gjchriond  ^Hiledford^ 
*•    iHudson      ^         (fhippewa^Ealls 
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>ee  , 

IshpemiD^B  Q  N  '~y$><.     V. 


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'"  "^etour 


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80 

r 
CENTRAL  STATES 

EASTERN  SECTION 

POLITICAL  AND  ECONOMIC  MAP 

Scale  of  statute  miles 


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46. 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Fig.  79.  This  is  the  Superior-Detroit  High  Level  Bridge,  which  spans  the 
Cuyahoga  River  at  Cleveland.  It  is  made  of  steel  and  concrete  and  is  high 
enough  to  allow  the  tallest  smokestacks  and  masts  of  the  Great  Lakes  vessels 
to  pass  under  it.  Cleveland  is  one  of  the  most  important  ports  on  the  Great 


Lakes  and  is  also  a  great  industrial  city.  Iron  ore  from  the  Lake  Superior 
district  is  sent  down  the  lakes  to  Cleveland,  and  coal  comes  by  rail  from  the 
fields  of  the  Appalachian  region.  What  are  Cleveland's  chief  industries  ? 
How  does  Cleveland  rank  in  size  among  the  cities  of  the  United  States  ? 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  natural  regions  border 
the  Central  Plains  ?  2.  How  do  the  Great  Lakes  modify  the 
weather  conditions  near  them  ?  3.  Which  part  of  the  Central 
Plains  has  glacial  soils  ?  4.  Where  is  the  Blue  Grass  Country  ? 
5.  In  what  ways  is  natural  oil,  or  petroleum,  transported  ?  6.  What 
uses  are  made  of  natural  gas  ?  7.  Does  the  mining  of  the  coal  in 
the  Central  Plains  interfere  with  the  use  of  the  surface  for  farm- 
ing? 8.  If  the  coal  were  used  at  the  mines  to  generate  electricity, 
what  saving  of  work  would  that  mean  ?  What  other  arguments 
are  there  in  favor  of  this  plan  ?  What  arguments  are  there  against 
this  plan  ?  9.  How  did  there  come  to  be  great  deposits  of  salt  in 
parts  of  this  region  ? 

Settlement  and  Industrial  Development 

Early  explorations.    Plate  A  in  the  Appendix  shows 

the  early  routes  of  exploration  into  the  interior  of  the 

continent.    Certain  headwaters  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and 

Mississippi  river  systems  are  so  near  together  that  the 


Fig.  80.  This  is  a  view  in  the  business  district  of  Buffalo,  showing  the  broad 

streets  and  handsome  buildings.   The  city  gets  its  electricity  for  light  and 

power  from  Niagara  Falls,  twenty  miles  away.  Locate  Buffalo  on  your  map 

and  explain  its  commercial  importance.   What  are  its  chief  industries  ? 


early  explorers  carried  their  boats  and  outfits  from  one 
river  system  into  the  other.  In  Wisconsin  there  is  a  short 
portage  from  the  Fox  River  (which  flows  northeastward 
into  Green  Bay)  to  the  Wisconsin  River.  The  city  of 
Portage  is  located  just  where  the  early  explorers  crossed 
from  the  St.  Lawrence  system  into  the  Mississippi  system. 
See  map  on  page  45.  This  was  the  route  followed  by 
Marquette  and  Joliet  in  1673,  on  their  trip  from  the 
Great  Lakes  down  the  Wisconsin  and  Mississippi  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  On  their  return  they  came  up 
the  Illinois  and  portaged  to  Lake  Michigan. 

In  1682  La  Salle,  on  his  third  trip  into  this  region, 
portaged  from  the  south  branch  of  the  Chicago  River  to 
the  Des  Plaines  and  thence  went  down  the  Illinois.  See 
Appendix,  Plate  A.  On  this  trip  he  followed  the  Missis- 
sippi River  to  its  mouth,  taking  possession  of  the  coun- 
try in  the  name  of  France  and  calling  it  Louisiana  in 
honor  of  Louis  XIV. 

The  explorers  who  went  westward  through  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains  of  Pennsylvania  soon  came  to  the 
headwaters  of  the  Ohio  River.  See  map  on  pages  2  and  3. 
This  river  was  used  as  a  highway  of  travel  during  the 
early  days  of  migration  into  the  Central  Plains.  Some 
who  came  by  way  of  the  Mohawk  valley  to  the  shores 
of  Lake  Erie  turned  southward  into  the  Ohio  and  fol- 
lowed it  to  the  southwest. 

Many  from  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia  moved  south- 
ward between  the  long  Appalachian  Mountain  ridges 
and  finally  found  in  Cumberland  Gap  {see  map  on 
pages  2  and  3,  K  3)  an  easy  route  to  the  westward. 
Some  of  these  immigrants  settled  in  the  hilly  country 
of  eastern  Kentucky  and  eastern  Tennessee,  but  many 
of  them  pushed  on  beyond  the  Appalachian  Plateau  into 
the  Central  Plains.  In  all  cases  the  lakes  and  rivers 
guided  the  early  explorers. 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


47 


Fig.  81.  The  harbor  of  Duluth  is  protected  by  a  long,  narrow  tongue  of  land 
which  nearly  connects  Duluth  and  Superior.  A  ship  canal  has  been  cut 
through  this  tongue  of  land,  allowing  the  large  lake  freighters  to  enter  and 
leave  the  harbor.   The  canal  is  spanned  by  a  traveling  aerial  bridge.   Foot 

Migrations  westward.  At  the  close  of  the  American 
Revolution  a  great  many  people  from  New  England  and 
the  Middle  Atlantic  states  went  westward  and  settled 
in  the  great  agricultural  lands  of  the  Central  Plains.  In 
those  days  land  travel  was  chiefly  by  wagons  or  oxcarts. 
As  the  number  of  people  increased,  larger  and  larger 
settlements  were  made,  and  these  grew  into  prosperous 
farming  communities.  Owing  to  the  building  of  railroads 
many  of  the  small  towns  have  become  cities.  Columbus 
(Ohio),  Indianapolis  (Indiana),  Springfield  (Illinois),  and 
Des  Moines  (Iowa)  are  examples  of  cities  located  in  the 
midst  of  prosperous  farming  districts. 

Location  and  growth  of  cities.  The  location  of  cities 
is  greatly  influenced  by  changes  in  the  means  of  trans- 
portation or,  as  we  may  call  it,  by  breaks  in  transpor- 
tation. When  men  who  are  traveling  by  water  find  it 
necessary  to  abandon  their  boats  and  go  overland,  they 
must  unload  their  goods,  usually  stay  overnight,  and 
purchase  a  new  outfit.  Such  delays  mean  that  people 
begin  to  congregate  where  there  are  breaks  in  transpor- 
tation. A  little  hotel  is  built,  stores  are  opened  to  ac- 
commodate the  travelers,  trading  begins,  and,  as  the 
demands  increase,  more  and  more  goods  are  brought 
there  to  be  sold.  As  the  population  increases,  manufac- 
turing may  be  undertaken,  a  railroad  may  be  built  to 
this  place,  and  soon  a  city  has  been  established. 

Lake  ports.  Many  cities  in  the  Central  Plains  region 
have  developed  as  lake  or  river  ports  where  there  are 
advantages  in  transportation.  See  map  between  pages  95 
and  98.  Buffalo,  Erie,  Cleveland  (Fig.  79),  Toledo,  Detroit, 
Milwaukee,  and  Chicago  are  the  larger  lake  ports  of  the 
Central  Plains.  Duluth  and  Superior  are  large  lake  ports 
in  an  adjoining  natural  region. 

Each  one  of  the  lake  ports  is  located  at  a  break  in 
transportation.  To-day  iron  ore  is  brought  by  train  to 
Superior  and  Duluth  and  then  transferred  to  lake  vessels 


Photograph  bj  McKeuie,  Duluth 

passengers,  teams,  automobiles,  and  trucks  are  lifted  and  carried  across  the 
canal  by  this  bridge.  Great  quantities  of  ore  and  grain  are  brought  to  Duluth 
and  Superior  by  rail,  loaded  into  the  freighters,  and  sent  east  by  the  Great 
Lakes.   Explain  the  importance  of  Duluth  and  Superior  as  shipping  centers 

(Fig.  81).  Wheat  and  lumber  also  come  to  these  ports 
and  are  transferred  to  vessels.  Grains  and  manufactured 
products  from  Chicago  and  farther  west  are  loaded  onto 
vessels  leaving  that  port  (Fig.  88).  Thousands  of  auto- 
mobiles are  shipped  by  water  from  Detroit.  Buffalo 
receives  large  quantities  of  foods  and  raw  materials  from 
the  west,  and  resbips  much  of  it  by  canals  or  by  rail  to 
cities  farther  east  (Fig.  80). 

Part  of  the  iron  ore  brought  to  Sandusky,  Cleveland, 
Erie,  and  other  Lake  Erie  ports  is  used  in  those  cities, 
but  large  quantities  are  transferred  to  freight  cars  and 
sent  on  to  Pittsburgh.  On  the  return  westward  many 
of  the  vessels  take  coal  and  manufactured  goods  for 
delivery  to  the  upper  lake  ports.  The  railroads  transfer 
the  products  of  the  farms  to  the  large  cities  on  the 
shores  of  the  lakes  and  distribute  throughout  the  country 
the  manufactured  goods  from  the  cities.  The  lake  ports 
are  therefore  very  busy  places,  where  great  cargoes  of  raw 
materials  and  manufactured  goods  are  being  exchanged. 


C.  J.  BibbMd 


Fig.  82.   Minneapolis,  located  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  on  the  Mississippi 

River,  is  the  greatest  flour-milling  center  in  the  world.    Over  100,000,000 

bushels  of  wheat  are  made  into  flour  here  every  year.    The  city  is  also  a 

great  lumber  center.  Can  you  explain  the  location  of  these  industries  ? 


48 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Fig.  83.  St.  Louis  is  located  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River 
just  south  of  the  points  where  the  Missouri  and  the  Illinois  rivers  enter  the 
main  stream.  The  city,  which  has  nearly  twenty  miles  of  river  frontage,  is  a 
very  important  river  port  and  a  very  busy  railroad  center.  At  the  right  in 


this  picture  is  one  of  the  great  bridges  which  connect  St.  Louis  with  the 
east  bank  of  the  river.  In  the  center  are  some  of  the  large  buildings  of 
the  city.  Locate  St.  Louis  on  your  map.  What  are  the  advantages  of  its 
location  ?   What  are  its  chief  industries,  and  why  have  they  developed  ? 


River  ports.  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  coming  to  the  city  manufacturing  has  developed  (Fig.  85). 
Omaha,  St.  Paul,  and  Minneapolis  are  the  larger  river  ports  Louisville  and  Cincinnati  are  the  leading  Ohio  River  ports 
within   this   region.     Minneapolis   started   as   a  lumber     in  this  natural  region. 


town.  Logs  were  sent  downstream  from  the  forests  of 
Minnesota.  Later,  when  railroads  had  been  built  and 
the  great  Northwest  was  open  for  settlement,  large  quan- 
tities of  wheat  began  to  move  eastward  and  flour  mills 
were  erected  at  Minneapolis,  until  that  city  has  become 
the  leading  flour-milling  center  in  the  United  States 
(Fig.  82).  St.  Paul  has  also  become  an  important  manu- 
facturing and  railroad  center  and  is  a  large  lumber 
market  (Fig.  84). 

St.  Louis  was  a  trading  center  in  the  early  days  of 
settlement,  and  since  it  was  near  the  junction  of  the 
Missouri  and  the  Mississippi,  it  was  a  natural  outfitting 
point  for  travelers  (Fig.  83). 

The  leading  cities  on  the 
Missouri  River  are  located 
where  transportation  west- 
ward in  the  early  days  was 
interrupted.  The  overland 
routes  of  migration  to  the 
Pacific  coast  started  from 
Kansas  City.  See  map  on 
pages  2  and  3.  To-day  there 
are  magnificent  bridges 
across  the  river,  and  travel 
may  go  on  without  inter- 
ruption. But  the  cities  once 
established  have  continued 
to  grow  in  population  and 
importance.  Omaha  is  a 
river  city,  but  it  owes  its 


Fig.  84.  St.  Paul,  the  capital  of  Minnesota,  is  situated  across  the  Mississippi 
River  from  Minneapolis,  and  the  two  are  known  as  the  "Twin  Cities."  They 
form  a  very  important  railroad  center,  and  four  transcontinental  railways 
pass  through  them.  Name  the  other  chief  railroad  centers  in  the  Central  Plains 


Note.   For  additional  study  of  cities  see  pages  44  and  54. 

Farming.  In  the  study  of  agriculture  in  this  region 
we  shall  begin  at  the  south  and  work  north  and  west. 
In  Kentucky,  in  the  Blue  Grass  Country,  there  is  a  rich 
clay  soil,  where  more  tobacco  is  raised  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  United  States  (Fig.  70).  This  is  also  a  good 
district  for  general  farming. 

The  famous  corn  belt  stretches  from  east  to  west 
throughout  the  Central  Plains,  with  a  width  of  about 
two  hundred  miles.  In  traveling  through  that  portion 
of  the  country  during  the  summer  we  can  see  thousands 

of  acres  of  gently  rolling 
country  where  com  is  grow- 
ing (Fig.  86).  The  corn  belt 
is  in  the  well-watered  por- 
tion of  the  Central  Plains 
and  gradually  comes  to  an 
end  in  the  west  as  the  coun- 
try becomes  drier.'  At  the 
western  end,  in  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  an  occasional  dry 
season  means  the  loss  of  a 
corn  crop. 

Corn  is  a  heavy  product 
to  ship,  and  the  farmers 
have  found  that  instead  of 
marketing  corn  it  is  much 
more  profitable  to  feed  it 
to  hogs  and  cattle  and  then 


growth  chiefly  to  railroads.   It  was  made  the  terminus  sell  the  stock  when  they  are  fattened  (Fig.  87).    This  is 

of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  which,  with  its  connections,  the  reason  why  corn  and  swine  appear  so  commonly 

was  the  first  transcontinental  railway  route.   Omaha  has  side   by  side   on   the   economic   maps   of   the   Central 

become  a  great  railroad  center,  and  with  raw  materials  Plains  region  (pp.  45,  55). 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


49 


Fig.  85.  This  is  a  portion  of  the  busy  industrial  district  of  Omaha.  The 
buildings  in  the  picture  include  the  car-shops  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad 
and  a  great  plant  for  the  smelting  and  refining  of  gold  and  silver  ores.  Be- 
cause of  its  location  Omaha  has  become  a  very  important  agricultural  and 

The  farmers  also  raise  horses,  mules,  and  sheep.  The 
green  cornstalks,  if  put  into  silos,  make  good  winter 
fodder  for  stock.  Some  of  the  fields  are  always  reserved 
for  raising  oats,  barley,  wheat,  and  vegetables.  The 
zone  where  most  of  the  oats  are  raised  is  a  little  farther 


Fig.  86.   This  farmer  is  standing  beside  his  corn  crop  to  show  how  tall  it 

has  grown.    Proper  seed  selection  and  soil  preparation  have  produced  an 

abundance  of  large,  well-filled  ears.   What  states  are  included  in  the  corn 

belt  ?  What  other  crops  are  grown  in  this  belt  besides  corn  ? 

north,  running  through  northern  Indiana,  Illinois,  and 
Iowa.  It  begins  before  the  corn  belt  ends.  See  maps  on 
pages  45  and  55. 

The  great  wheat  belt  begins  before  the  oat  belt  ends, 
and  wheat  becomes  a  more  and  more  important  crop  to 
the  northwest  and  west.  Wheat-raising  has  an  impor- 
tant relationship  to  the  climate.  It  needs  from  three 
to  four  months  of  weather  without  frost  in  which  to 
grow  and  ripen.  Wheat  also  needs  rain  in  the  early 
part  of  its  growth,  but  during  the  ripening  period  it 
matures  better  if  the  climate  is  dry  and  there  is  plenty 
of  sunshine.  To  the  northwest,  in  Minnesota  and  the 
Dakotas,  and  to  the  west,  in  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and 


industrial  center.  Seventeen  railroads  meet  here.  What  do  they  bring  to 
Omaha  ?  What  do  they  take  away  ?  In  the  early  days  of  westward  migra- 
tion Omaha  was  one  of  the  points  from  which  the  pioneers  set  forth  on  their 
journey  westward.   What  trails  did  they  follow  ?   See  map  on  pages  2  and  3 

Oklahoma,  we  pass  into  drier  and  drier  regions,  where 
wheat  can  be  raised  more  profitably  than  corn  or  oats. 

The  broad,  level  country  in  the  valley  of  the  Red 
River  in  the  Great  Plains  of  Canada  and  the  United 
States  is  a  wonderful  wheat-producing  district,  for  the 
soils  are  very  fertile.  The  valley  of  the  Minnesota 
River  in  the  Central  Plains,  just  southeast  of  the  Red 
River  valley,  is  another  rich  wheat-growing  district 

Near  each  of  the  large  cities  in  the  Central  Plains  dairy 
farming,  market  gardening,  and  the  raising  of  poultry 
have  been  undertaken  on  a  large  scale.  Many  of  the, 
dairy  products  from  southeastern  Wisconsin  and  north- 
ern Illinois  are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 


■ 

g£a»6  -    - :             ^*>^ 

— $r*R            RT4P 

-— 

Fig.  87.  These  little  pigs  are  among  the  many  thousands  which  are  raised 

in  the  corn  belt.   The  rich  corn  is  just  what  they  need  to  make  them  fat,  so 

nearly  every  corn  farmer  also  raises  hogs.   For  this  reason  the  corn  belt  is 

the  greatest  hog-exporting  region  in  the  world 

Wisconsin  has  more  dairy  cows  than  any  other  state  except 
New  York  and  leads  in  the  production  of  butter  and  cheese. 

Home  work.  1.  Find  out  the  meaning  and  value  of  rotation  of 
crops.    2.  What  is  meant  by  winter  wheat  ?  by  spring  wheat  ? 


50 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Influence  of  farm  life  upon  cities.   With  the  produc-     fields  and  the  quick  harvesting  of  great  crops.   This  led 


tion  of  such  great  crops  of  grain,  mills  were  estab- 
lished in  the  chief  centers  of  population,  where  these 
products  might  be  worked  into  the  form  of  foods.  With 
the  raising  of  swine,  cattle,  and  sheep  the  meat-packing 
business  has  developed.  Chicago  became  the  center  for 
this  business  and  still  ranks  first  (Fig.  89),  but  now 
Kansas  City,  Omaha,  Fort  Worth,  East  St.  Louis,  and 
other   cities    have   large   meat-packing   establishments,     where  some  of  the  best  plows  in  the  world  are  made 

(Fig.  77).   The  great 


to  the  invention  of  the  most  helpful  farm  implements 
the  world  has  ever  known. 

The  first  chilled-steel  plow  was  made  by  a  man  who 
settled  on  the  banks  of  the  little  river  where  South 
Bend  is  now  located.  That  one  tool  has  been  wonder- 
fully helpful  to  the  entire  country.  The  little  blacksmith 
shop  has  grown  into  immense  foundries  and  factories, 


n  and  Company 

Fig.  88.  This  is  an  aeroplane  drawing  of  Chicago.  The  low,  flat  land  on  which  the  city  is  built  was  once  covered  by  the 
waters  of  the  lake.  The  curved  margin  of  the  upland  southwest  of  Chicago  marks  the  old  shore  line.  Chicago  has  no 
natural  harbor,  but  by  widening  and  deepening  the  mouth  of  the  Chicago  River  and  protecting  it  by  breakwaters  an  excel- 
lent harbor  has  been  made.  The  river  itself,  which  used  to  flow  into  the  lake,  has  been  transformed  into  a  drainage 
canal  by  which  the  waters  of  Lake  Michigan  flow  into  the  Illinois  River  and  finally  into  the  Mississippi.   How  has  the 

location  of  Chicago  favored  its  development  ? 

More  and  more  food  was  needed  within  this  region, 
but  the  production  of  food  has  gone  far  beyond  the 
local  needs,  and  the  Central  Plains  now  supply  large 
quantities  of  food  to  other  parts  of  the  United  States 
and  to  many  foreign  lands. 

The  farmers  needed  implements,  and  at  South  Bend 
(Indiana),  Chicago  and  Moline  (Illinois),  Racine  (Wis- 
consin), Davenport  (Iowa),  and  many  other  cities  great 
plants  have  been  established  for  the  manufacture  of 
different  kinds  of  farm  equipment.  Special  machinery 
was  needed  to  make  possible  the  planting  of  immense 


reapers  and  binders, 
mowing  and  thresh- 
ing machines,  gang 
plows,  and  gasoline 
motors  have  been  per- 
fected here  in  the 
Central  Plains. 

To   give   farmers 
the  comforts  of  run- 
ning water  in  their 
homes,  dairy  barns, 
and  pastures,  wind- 
mills  were   needed. 
Thelight  metal  wind- 
mills were  perfected 
to  meet  this  demand. 
They  are  wonderful 
labor-saving  devices 
and  encourage  us  to 
make  much  more  use 
of  the  wind.    Some 
day    many    farmers 
may  have  windmills 
to  generate  electric- 
ity, which   may   be 
held  in  storage  bat- 
teries   and  used   as 
it   is   needed   about 
the  farm  buildings. 
Every  new  home 
had  to  be  furnished. 
New   kitchen  outfits  were  needed.    Sewing  machines, 
washing   machines,   churns,  wagons,  carriages,  pianos, 
and  automobiles  were  called  for.   The  prosperous  farm- 
ing districts  made  large  demands  upon  the  cities  for 
manufactured  articles. 

Home  work.  1.  On  an  outline  map  show  the  routes  by  which 
the  early  explorers  and  settlers  came  into  the  Central  Plains. 
See  map  on  pages  2  and  3.  2.  Add  the  boundaries  of  these 
states  to  your  map  of  the  United  States.  Print  in  names  of 
states,  capitals,  and  a  few  large  cities.  3.  Select  the  five  largest 
cities  and  work  out  with  the  maps  what  must  have  been  important 
factors  in  determining  the  location  of  each  city. 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


51 


Milling.  The  coal  mined  in  this  region  and  the  oil 
and  gas  produced  here  supply  heat  for  the  homes  and 
power  for  the  ever-increasing  number  of  railroads  and 
factories  as  well  as  for  the  steamships  on  the  lakes 
and  rivers.  The  oil  and  gas  produced  in  excess  of  the 
local  demand  are  sent  to  other  parts  of  the  country. 
The  demand  for  the  lead,  zinc,  and  salt  has  kept  the 
mines  of  Missouri,  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley,  central 
New  York,  and  southern  Michigan  busy  producing  these 
valuable  minerals. 

Manufacturing.  With  the  rapid  development  of  agri- 
culture and  mining,  the  great  increase  in  population,  and 
the  construction  of  railroads,  came 
large  demands  for  manufactured 
articles.  We  have  mentioned  the 
call  from  the  farmers  for  such  arti- 
cles. The  city  populations  also 
needed  homes.  They  needed  furni- 
ture, clothing,  food,  books,  maga- 
zines, and  papers,  and  were  ready 
to  buy  many  luxuries.  Industrial 
life  developed  in  response  to  this 
ever-increasing  demand.  Now  many 
useful  articles  made  in  this  region 
are  shipped  to  other  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  to  distant  lands. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What 
were  the  routes  of  the  early  explorers  into 
the  upper  Mississippi  Valley  ?  2.  What 
are  the  chief  navigable  waterways  in  the 
Central  Plains  ?  3.  How  have  they  been 
improved  by  man  ?  4.  How  may  they  be 
made  more  serviceable  to  man  ?  5.  Where 
are  there  great  water-power  plants  in  the 
Central  Plains  ?  6.  What  uses  have  been 
made  of  the  wood  from  the  forests  ? 
7.  What   building  materials   other   than 

wood  are  available  ?  8.  Why  should  cities  be  located  at  breaks 
in  transportation  ?  9.  Why  do  farmers  in  the  corn  belt  usually 
raise  swine  ?  10.  What  are  some  of  the  modern  improvements 
enjoyed  on  the  farms  ?  11.  How  does  the  development  of  farming 
influence  life  in  the  cities  ?  12.  How  have  the  industries  of  the 
cities  influenced  life  on  the  farms  ? 

13.  Why  should  the  Central  Plains  of  the  United  States  be  an 
industrial  as  well  as  an  agricultural  district  ?  What  sources  of 
power  are  there  ?  What  raw  materials  for  manufacture  are  avail- 
able ?  What  metals  are  mined  in  this  region  ?  What  very  useful 
metals  are  found  in  large  quantities  in  an  adjoining  region  and 
easily  brought  to  the  industrial  centers  ?  What  means  of  trans- 
portation are  available  ?    Where  are  the  customers  ? 

14.  What  agricultural  advantages  have  these  plains  ?  Did 
most  of  the  soils  originate  in  this  region  ?  Is  there  enough 
rainfall  for  agriculture  without  irrigating  the  lands  ?  Which 
portion  has  the  greater  rainfall  ?  What  means  of  transportation 
are  available  for  the  modern  farmer  ? 


Physical  Geography 

Land  made  in  the  sea.  The  Central  Plains  were 
formerly  covered  by  an  interior  sea  that  spread  north- 
ward from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  covered  this  part  of 
the  United  States.  In  that  sea  the  sandstones  and  lime- 
stones that  underlie  the  region  were  made. 

Uplifting  of  the  land.  The  land  was  next  uplifted, 
and  the  sea  was  forced  to  retreat.  Rains  fell  and  rivers 
began  their  work  of  cutting  up  the  land  and  taking  the 
loose  material  back  to  the  ocean. 

Coming  of  the  ice.  Next  came  the  Ice  Age,  when  the 
great  continental  glaciers  invaded  the  Central  Plains.   In 


Fig.  89.   Chicago  is  the  largest  meat  market  in  the  world.    The  stockyards  are  located  near  the  great 

meat-packing  plants.    They  contain  thousands  of  pens  to  which  the  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  are  taken 

from  the  railroad  cars  and  kept  until  they  are  purchased  by  one  of  the  packing  companies.   From  what 

regions  do  these  different  kinds  of  live  stock  come  to  Chicago  ?   To  what  points  is  the  meat  sent  ? 


the  eastern  portion  of  the  region  it  was  a  part  of  the 
same  great  ice-sheet  which  covered  the  northeastern  por- 
tion of  the  United  States  and  advanced  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  West  of  the  Mississippi  the  ice  came  from  an- 
other center,  which  was  west  of  Hudson  Bay  (Fig.  14). 
Two  great  ice-sheets,  therefore,  moved  southward  from 
Canadian  territory  into  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley. 
They  crossed  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  met 
south  of  the  driftless  area  of  southwestern  Wisconsin 
and  the  adjoining  states.  The  southern  limit  of  ice 
action  and  the  driftless  area  are  shown  on  the  map  on 
pages  2  and  3. 

Retreat  of  the  ice.  In  time  the  climate  became  warmer 
and  the  great  ice-sheets  melted  away.  They  left  a 
mantle  of  clays,  sands,  gravels,  and  bowlders,  much  as 
they  did  in  other  regions. 


52 


CENTRAL  PLAINS 


Fig.  90.  This  is  a  view  of  part  of  the  lake  front  at  Chicago,  a  little  south 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Chicago  River.  A  fine,  broad  boulevard  follows  the 
lake  shore,  along  which  there  are  many  hotels  and  tall  office  buildings. 
Chicago  is  the  second  largest  city  in  the  United  States,  and  although  it  is 


a  thousand  miles  from  the  ocean,  it  is  one  of  the  greatest  ports  in  our 
country.  Using  Fig.  88  and  the  maps  on  pages  45  and  85,  answer  the  follow- 
ing questions :  What  products  are  brought  to  Chicago  by  boat  ?  Where  do 
they  come  from  ?  What  is  the  chief  industry  at  South  Chicago  and  Gary  ? 


The  Great  Lakes.   Before  the  ice  melted  entirely  away,  The  former  outlets  of  the  Great  Lakes  are  now  occu- 

it  stood  for  a  time  over  the  valleys  of  the  Mohawk  and  pied  by  small  rivers,  but  the  broad  valleys  which  formerly 

St.  Lawrence  rivers,  and  during  that  time  the  water  from  had  large  rivers  when  the  lake  waters  drained  through 

the  western  Great  Lakes  flowed  through  other  outlets  them  are  valuable  for  farm  lands.    They  are  very  attrac- 

to  the  south.    Lake  Superior  drained  by  way  of  the  St.  tive  routes  for  railroads  and  canals.  From  Chicago  south- 

Croix  River  into  the  Mississippi ;  Lake  Michigan  drained  westward  in  the  ancient  lake  outlet  there  is  an  old  canal 

by  way  of  the  Illinois  River  into  the  Mississippi ;  and  known  as  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  a  new  Sani- 

for  a  time  the  waters  in  the  basin  of  Lake  Erie  drained  tary  Canal,  and  several  railroads.    In  Ohio  and  Indiana, 


by  way  of  the  Maumee  and  Wabash  rivers  into  the  Ohio. 
Later  the  waters  from  the  Lake  Erie  basin  joined  those 
of  the  Lake  Huron  basin  and  flowed  westward  across 
Michigan,  by  a  route  which  is  now  followed  in  part  by 
the  Grand  River,  into,  the  basin  of  Lake  Michigan.  Dur- 
ing this  time  the  water  from  the  Great  Lakes  found  its 
way  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

When  the  ice  melted  farther  back  to  the  northward, 
the  valley  of  the  Mohawk  was  uncovered  and  the  drain- 
age from  the  Great  Lakes  turned  eastward,  draining  for 
a  time  through  the  Mohawk  valley  into  the  Hudson. 
Thus  the  Mohawk 
valley  once  held  a 
mighty  river,  and 
the  lake  waters  en- 
tered the  sea  near 
the  point  where  the 
great  city  of  New 
York  now  stands. 

When  the  ice 
had  melted  still 
farther  northward, 
and  the  valley  of 
the  St.  Lawrence 
was  uncovered,  the 


Fig.  91.  In  the  southern  parts  of  Indiana  and  Illinois,  and  in  Kentucky,  boys  have  found  holes  in  the 
ground  through  which  they  can  descend  into  great  underground  rooms.  In  places  they  can  crawl  along 
tunnels  from  one  room  to  another.  This  is  because  the  layers  of  rock  are  made  of  limestone,  which  the 
underground  waters  easily  dissolve  away,  leaving  the  great  caves  and  tunnels.  In  some  of  the  caves  the 
roofs  and  walls  are  covered  with  beautiful  crystals  made  by  the  water.  Sometimes,  when  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  roof  of  the  cave  is  left,  it  forms  a  natural  bridge  like  the  one  at  the  right  in  this  figure 


canals  and  railroads  follow  the  former  outlets  of  Lake 
Erie.  The  Mohawk  valley  is  the  route  of  the  Erie  and 
New  York  barge  canals  and  of  trunk  lines  of  railroads. 

Home  work.  1.  From  the  tables  at  the  end  of  the  book  make 
a  list  of  the  chief  lake  ports  in  the  order  of  population.  Do  the 
same  for  the  large  river  cities.  2.  How  many  of  the  twenty-five 
largest  cities  in  the  United  States  are  in  the  Central  Plains  ? 
3.  Which  is  the  second  largest  city  in  the  United  States? 

Future.  Without  any  doubt  agriculture  will  continue 
to  be  the  chief  occupation  within  this  Central  Plains 
region,  manufacturing  will  be  second,  and  mining  third. 

With  these  occu- 
pations there  has 
cornea  great  trans- 
portation business. 
Thousands  of  peo- 
ple will  always  be 
needed  by  the  rail- 
road and  steam- 
ship companies.  An 
increasing  popula- 
tion will  continue 
to  demand  a  larger 
and  larger  number 
of   traders,    store- 


drainage  from  the  Great  Lakes  chose  that  northern  route  keepers,  and  men  and  women  connected  with  the  office 
because  it  was  the  lowest  route  available.  The  Great  work  of  large  business  interests.  Thus  it  seems  certain 
Lakes  are  drained  by  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to-day.     that  the  region  will  increase  in  prosperity. 


GREAT  PLAINS 


53 


Fig.  92.  The  drainage  basin  of  the  Judith  River  in  Montana  is  one  of  the 
parts  of  the  Great  Plains  where  there  is  enough  moisture  to  raise  grain 
without  irrigation.  This  view  of  the  basin  was  taken  at  harvest  time  and 
shows  the  broad,  level  surface  which  is  so  well  suited  to  the  production 


of  grain.  The  harvesters  are  being  drawn  over  the  fields  by  a  tractor, 
which  makes  it  possible  to  cut  many  acres  in  a  very  short  time.  The  chief 
crop  here  is  wheat.  Where  is  this  wheat  made  into  flour  ?  Where  is  it  finally 
used  ?   What  other  kinds  of  grain  are  raised  in  the  Great  Plains  region  ? 


GREAT  PLAINS 


causing  floods  in  the  spring  by  melting  the  snow  fields. 
In  winter  there  are  fierce  storm  winds,  which  bring  snow 

The  Great  Plains  region,  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun-  and  sleet  and  are  called  blizzards.    Tornadoes  sometimes 

tains,  is  an  open,  unforested  grassland  (Fig.  92).    Here  cross  the  plains  during  the  summer.  Such  a  storm  travels 

life  has  been  affected  by  climate  more  than  by  any  other  with  a  great  funnel-shaped  cloud  accompanied  by  terrific 

geographic  factor.  winds  which  blow  down  houses,  barns,  fences,  and  bridges 

Climate.    When  the  rainfall  in  any  region  is  below  20  and  do  a  great  deal  of  damage.    Occasionally  a  house  is 

inches  a  year,  the  success  of  agriculture  is  uncertain  unless  turned  around  so  that  it  faces  in  a  new  direction.    A 

the  lands  are  irrigated.    If  the  rain  averages  between  10  roof  may  be  taken  off,  and  the  furniture  may  be  carried 

and  20  inches,  grasses  will  flourish  but  the  region  will  not  away  by  the  wind.  In  Texas  cold  winds,  called  northers, 

be  forested.  The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  southwest,  sometimes  come  very  suddenly  and  cause  rapid  changes 

and  they  give  up  most  of  their  moisture  on  the  seaward  in  the  temperature.    The  abundance  of  sunshine  in  this 

slopes  of  the  high  mountains  before  reaching  this  section  region  is  favorable  to  agriculture,  and  with  the  help  of 

of  the  country.  See  map  on  page  82.  Rain-bearing  winds  irrigation  large  crops  are  produced. 


from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  bring  some  rainfall  to  the  Texas 
end  of  the  Great  Plains,  especially  in  summer. 

During  the  warm  season  the  temperature  on  the  plains 
near  the  Canadian  border  commonly  ranges  from  70 
to  90  degrees,  and  in  the 
cold  season  the  thermome- 
ters register  10,  20,  and 
even  40  degrees  below  zero. 
At  the  Texas  end  of  the 
Great  Plains  the  winter 
temperature  averages  about 
45  degrees  and  the  summer 
temperature  averages  about 
85  degrees.  Thus  the  Great 
Plains  have  what  is  called  a 
continental  climate.  There 
are  great  extremes  in  tem- 
perature and  moderate  or 
light  rainfall. 

Occasionally  very  warm 
winds  cross  the  plains,  dry- 
ing up  the  grasses  and 
crops  in  summer,  and  even 


wBBmBbm 

1 

I 

i 

- 

m  re 

!    - . 

. . .—  — .       >".. 

Fig.  93.   This  is  a  field  of  full-grown  kafir  corn.  You  can  see  by  the  meas- 
ure at  the  right  that  it  is  six  feet  high.   Kafir  corn  is  a  drought-resisting 
plant,  well  suited  to  the  dry  conditions  of  the  Great  Plains.  Can  you  name 
other  drought-resisting  plants  ? 


Natural  resources.  The  grasslands,  which  have  made 
the  grazing  of  stock  possible,  are  the  most  important  of 
the  natural  resources.  The  soils,  especially  in  the  broad 
river  bottoms,  are  exceedingly  fertile,  and  large  crops  of 

wheat  (Fig.  92),  kafir  corn 
(Fig.  93),  and  alfalfa  are 
raised.  In  North  Dakota 
large  quantities  of  flax  are 
grown.  Irrigation  is  prac- 
ticed in  many  of  the  valleys. 
In  Wyoming,  Montana, 
and  North  Dakota  there  are 
extensive  beds  of  lignite, 
which  is  a  low-grade  coal. 
Bituminous  coal  is  found 
near  the  base  of  the  moun- 
tains in  Montana,  Colorado, 
and  in  New  Mexico.  There 
are  also  oil  fields  in  Wyo-- 
ming  and  Colorado,  and  it 
is  very  likely  that  more 
may  be  discovered  in  other 
parts  of  this  natural  region. 


54 


MAP  STUDIES 


MAP  STUDIES 

The  change  from  the  Central  Plains  to  the  Great  Plains 
is  very  gradual.  The  land  is  higher  in  the  west,  the  soils 
are  more  sandy,  and  there  is  less  rainfall.  The  changes  in 
geographic  conditions  are  such  as  to  make  the  activities  of  the 
people  in  one  region  quite  different  from  those  in  the  other. 

Minnesota.  1.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  this  state? 
See  map  on  pages  2  and  3.  2.  What  part  of  the  state  is  without 
any  glacial  soil  ?  3.  Explain  the  numerous  lakes.  4.  What 
navigable  river  rises  in  this  state  ?    Find  its  source. 

5.  What  is  the  chief  mineral  resource  ?  See  Fig.  71. 
6.  What  are  the  chief  farm  products?  7.  Name  and  locate 
the  capital.  See  page  48  and  Fig.  84.  8.  What  is  the  largest 
city  in  Minnesota  ?    See  page  48  and  Fig.  82. 

Duluth  (Fig.  81)  is  the  gateway  to  and  from  the  Great  Lakes 
and  is  second  only  to  New  York  in  the  volume  of  tonnage 
which  it  handles.  It  is  the  principal  shipping  point  of  Amer- 
ican iron  ores,  and  one  of  the  great  grain  markets  of  the  world. 

Iowa.  1.  Is  any  part  of  this  state  outside  of  the  Central 
Plains  ?  2.  What  portion  of  the  state  is  without  glacial  soils? 
3.  What  navigable  rivers  border  Iowa  ?  4.  Judging  from  the 
products,  name  the  leading  occupation. 

Des  Moines,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is  near  the  coal 
fields  and  has  become  a  manufacturing  center.  It  is  one  of 
the  leading  cities  in  the  insurance  business  in  the  United 
States.  Sioux  City  is  the  largest  city  in  northwestern  Iowa ;  it  is 
an  important  railway  center.  Davenport  is  on  a  high  bluff  over- 
looking the  Mississippi  River ;  it  is  a  manufacturing,  and  trad- 
ing center.  Dubuque  is  also  on  the  Mississippi  River  and  is  an 
active  manufacturing  city.  Cedar  Rapids  is  in  the  midst  of  a 
most  productive  farming  district  and  is  fortunate  in  having 
water-power  available.  Meat-packing  and  the  making  of 
cereal  foods  are  its  chief  industries.  Waterloo  is  noted  for  the 
great  variety  in  its  manufacturing. 

Missouri.  1.  What  mountains  are  in  this  state  ?  What 
plateau  ?  What  plains  ?  2.  What  mineral  resources  are  im- 
portant ?  3.  What  navigable  rivers  are  available  ?  4.  What  are 
the  chief  farm  products  ?  5.  Describe  the  location  of  the  capital. 

St.  Louis  is  the  largest  city  in  Missouri  and  ranks  with  the 
leading  cities  of  the  nation  in  commerce  and  manufacturing 
(Fig.  83  and  page  48).  Kansas  City  is  located  on  the  western 
boundary  of  the  state  on  the  Missouri  River,  but  owes  its 
development  largely  to  the  railways.  It  is  in  the  midst  of  a 
prosperous  farming  and  stock-raising  district.  St.  Joseph  is 
the  metropolis  of  northwestern  Missouri  and  is  a  very  busy 
trading  and  meat-packing  center. 

North  Dakota.  Most  of  this  state  is  in  the  Great  Plains 
natural  region.  The  eastern  part  is  a  fertile  lake  bottom ;  the 
central  portion  is  mantled  with  glacial  soils  and  is  an  excel- 
lent farming  land ;  but  the  western  part,  where  the  rainfall  is 
light,  is  useful  chiefly  as  a  grazing  country. 

1.  What  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people  ?  2.  What 
river  that  rises  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Minnesota  flows 
northward  into  Canada?  3.  What  are  the  chief  farm  prod- 
ucts of  North  Dakota  ?  4.  What  fuel  is  found  in  this  state  ? 
5.  Where  is  the  population  densest  ?  Why  ?  6.  Is  irrigation 
practiced  in  this  state? 


Bismarck,  the  capital,  is  on  the  Missouri  River  in  a  district 
where  agriculture  and  dairying  are  taking  the  place  of  graz- 
ing. Fargo  sprang  into  existence  with  the  coming  of  the  rail- 
road and  owes  its  development  to  the  fertility  of  the  valley 
of  the  Red  River.  Grand  Forks  was  first  a  fur-trading  post,  but 
the  railroads  have  made  it  an  important  distributing  point, 
and  the  fertile  soils  of  the  Red  River  Valley  have  attracted 
farmers  into  that  part  of  the  state. 

South  Dakota.  1.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  this 
state?  2.  The  Black  Hills  are  a  range  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. What  is  the  highest  peak  in  this  range?  3.  What 
metals  are  found  in  the  state  ?  4.  What  must  be  the  occupa- 
tions in  the  different  parts  of  South  Dakota? 

Pierre,  the  capital,  is  one  of  the  largest  stock-shipping 
points  in  the  state.  Sioux  Falls  has  the  advantages  of  water- 
power  from  the  Big  Sioux  River  and  excellent  railroad  con- 
nections. This  city  has  shared  in  the  prosperity  and  growth  of 
the  great  northwest  agricultural  and  grazing  regions.  Aberdeen 
is  another  city  that  owes  much  to  the  western  railroads  and 
to  the  development  of  farming. 

Nebraska.  1.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  this  state  ? 
2.  What  large  river  forms  the  eastern  boundary  ?  3.  What 
are  the  chief  products  of  Nebraska?  4.  Judging  from  the 
products,  name  the  two  chief  occupations. 

Lincoln,  the  capital,  has  been  benefited  by  the  many  railroads 
that  enter  the  city.  It  is  a  manufacturing  center  and  the  seat 
of  the  leading  educational  institution  of  the  state.  Omaha,  the 
metropolis  of  the  state,  is  a  leading  manufacturing  and  meat- 
producing  center  and  an  important  stock  market  (Fig.  85). 

Kansas.    1.  What  natural  regions  extend   into  Kansas? 

2.  What  part  of  the  state  is  most  densely  settled?    Why? 

3.  What  sources  of  fuel  are  available  ?  4.  What  are  the 
chief  farm  products?  5.  Judging  from  the  products  of  this 
state,  name  the  chief  occupations.  6.  Name  and  locate  the 
capital. 

Kansas  City,  Kansas,  is  opposite  the  city  of  the  same  name 
in  Missouri.  It  is  the  largest  city  in  Kansas  and  is  an  impor- 
tant meat-packing  and  trading  center.  Wichita  has  prospered 
as  the  farming  and  stock-raising  of  Kansas  have  developed, 
and  it  is  near  some  of  the  great  oil  and  gas  fields  of  Kansas. 

GENERAL  QUESTIONS 

1.  Where  does  the  20-inch  rainfall  line  cross  these  states  ? 
See  map  on  page  82.  2.  From  what  district  do  the  great  flour 
mills  at  Minneapolis  get  their  wheat?  3.  What  are  the  chief 
markets  for  the  cattle  raised  in  these  states  ? 

4.  What  is  the  notable  change  in  occupation  between  the 
dry  and  wet  parts  ?  5.  Does  the  corn  belt  extend  into  these 
states?  6.  As  you  go  to  the  northwest  from  the  corn  belt, 
what  do  you  find  the  farmers  raising  ? 

7.  What  interesting  sights  should  you  expect  to  see  if  you 
went  in  a  house-boat  from  St.  Paul  to  St.  Louis  ?  Describe 
such  a  journey  taken  in  summer.  8.  Compare  the  latitude 
of  Denver  with  that  of  Springfield,  Illinois.  9.  What  large 
Gulf  port  is  in  about  the  same  longitude  as  Kansas  City, 
Kansas  ?  10.  Which  is  farther  from  the  north  pole,  Duluth 
or  Spokane  ? 


D  Giuo  and  Company 


56 


GREAT  PLAINS 


away,  and  visiting  became  very  com- 
mon among  the  people.  That  extreme 
hospitality  has  continued  to  the  present 
day.  The  people  welcome  strangers  and 
are  most  cordial  to. everyone. 

Passing  of  the  open  range.  More  and 
more  settlers  came  to  the  Great  Plains  ; 
the  raising  of  cattle  and  sheep  grew  to 
be  very  profitable;  the  call  of  the  great 
industrial  centers  farther  east  for  meat, 
wool,  and  leather  steadily  increased. 
Railroads  were  constructed.  Still  more 
settlers  came,  the  land  had  to  be  divided 
among  the  different  ranchmen,  and 
fences  were  built.  The  days  of  the  open 
Early  exploration.  The  early  routes  of  migration  west-  range  have  now  nearly  passed,  but  grazing  remains  the 
ward  from  the  Missouri  River  are  shown  on  the  map  most  important  industry  of  the  Great  Plains  (Figs.  94, 95). 
(pp.  2,  3).  Most  of  the  outfitting  was  done  where  Kansas  A  modern  ranch.  The  headquarters  of  a  modern  ranch 
City  is  located.  Many  exploring  parties  started  west-  must  be  near  a  supply  of  water.  There  the  home  and 
ward  by  way  of  the  Santa  Fe  trail,  crossing  the  plains  numerous  barns,  sheds,  and  corrals  will  be  built.  Near 
to  the  southwest  and  going  through  New  Mexico  to  the  home  there  will  be  fields  suitable  for  raising  hay, 
avoid  climbing  the  Rocky  Mountains.    The  Oregon  trail     alfalfa,  and  possibly  some  grain. 

led  through  the  valley  of  the  North  Platte,  and  the  The  ranch  must  be  supplied  with  modern  harvesting 
California  trail  branched  off  from  the  Oregon  trail  at  machinery  and  a  large  number  of  strong  work  horses 
points  in  what  is  now  the  state  of  Idaho,  and  crossed     or  a  few  motors.    The  saddle  horses  are  used  chiefly  by 


Fig.  94.  Millions  of  cattle  graze  over  the  Great  Plains  of  Texas.  This  is  a  herd  of  fine-blooded 
Herefords,  an  English  breed  of  cattle  which  the  ranchmen  raise  in  great  numbers  because  they  can 
fatten  them  quickly.  To  what  great  centers  are  these  cattle  sent  when  ready  for  market  ?  Why  is 
Texas  a  particularly  favorable  locality  for  cattle-raising  ?  Can  you  describe  a  Texas  cowboy's  life  ? 


the  Great  Basin  region.  The  Lewis  and  Clark  expedi- 
tion of  1804-1806  followed  the  Missouri  River  far  to 
the  northwest. 

Ranch  life.  A  few  of  the  fur  traders,  trappers,  and 
miners  who  followed  the  trails  westward  decided  to  settle 
in  the  Great  Plains.  They  chose  the  valley  bottoms  for 
their  homes  and  began  raising  horses  and  cattle.  The 
land  belonged  to  the  government,  and  there  were  no 
fences.    Those  were  the  days  when  each  man's  cattle 


the  men  or  boys  who  ride  out  to  oversee  the  cattle  or 
to  drive  them  to  pasture  or  to  some  place  for  shipment. 
The  prosperous  ranchmen  of  to-day  all  use  automobiles 
for  going  to  town  or  for  transporting  supplies. 

During  the  summer  while  the  sheep  and  cattle  are  in 
large  fenced  pastures,  feeding  on  native  grasses,  the  ranch- 
man and  his  many  helpers  are  engaged  in  the  fields  at 
home.  When  fall  comes  the  cattle  and  sheep  are  driven 
into  the  fields  near  the  home,  where  for  several  weeks 


mingled  with  those  of  his  neighbors,  and  every  season  it  they  may  graze  and  later,  when  the  grass  is  gone  or  the 
was  necessary,  with  the  help  of  cowboys,  to  round  up  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  they  may  be  fed  conveniently, 
the  stock  and  brand  all  the  calves.  This  was  done  before 
the  calves  left  their  mothers ;  and  as  the  mothers  had 
all  been  branded  when  they  were  young,  the  ownership 
of  the  calves  was  known. 

Later  many  undertook  the  raising  of  sheep.  Sheep 
are  able  to  graze  on  lands  where  cattle  would  starve, 
and  cattle  will  not  graze  after  sheep  have  been  on  the 
range;  hence  the  necessity  of  separate  ranges.  The 
sheep  are  always  put  on  the  poorer  ranges. 

For  years  and  years  all  of  the  land  was  freely  used 
by  all  the  people.  The  ranchmen  all  helped  each  other 
and  were  most  hospitable.    They  usually  traveled  on 

horseback  and   Stopped  wherever   night  overtook   them.       Fig.  95.    The  men  on  horseback  in  this  picture  are  cowboys  who  ride  over 
If   they   happened    to   be    at    another   man's   home,   they      the  Plains  looking  after  the  great  herds  of  cattle.    Back  of  them  is  a  rope 

went  in  and  made  themselves  comfortable,  whether  the     cc°"aVn  ™ich  they  Tkeep  thcf  h?m-    ™s  picture  was 'ak*n  T 

Sheridan,  Wyoming.    Locate  Sheridan  on  the  map  on  page  73.    Describe 

owner  was  at  home  or  not.    No  one  was  ever  turned  the  country  and  the  climate  there 


GREAT  PLAINS 


57 


Farming.  The  large  rivers  that  rise 
in  the  mountains  where  there  is  a 
heavy  rainfall  with  much  snow  furnish 
water  for  irrigation,  and  thus  farming 
of  a  more  general  nature  has  been 
undertaken  near  the  main  streams.. 
Large  quantities  of  hay  and  grain  are 
raised  to  feed  to  the  stock.  Alfalfa 
fields,  when  well  irrigated,  will  yield 
from  two  to  four  crops  a  year.  Alfalfa 
is  a  member  of  the  clover  family,  and 
it  helps  to  enrich  the  soil  by  taking 
nitrogen  from  the  air.  The  practice 
of  dry  farming  is  now  adding  to  the 
production  of   grains  in  this    region. 


Courtesj  of  international  Hamiter  Co. 

Fig.  96.  The  farms  of  the  Great  Plains  are  so  large  that  much  of  the  work  must  be  done  by 
machinery.  This  is  a  threshing  outfit,  which  separates  the  kernels  of  grain  from  the  stalks.  The 
engine  which  provides  the  power  is  at  the  left,  while  the  threshing  machine  itself  is  at  the  right 


Along  the  eastern  margin  of  the  Great  Plains  much  ranching  district  and  has  developed  a  large  business  in 
wheat  and  corn  are  raised.  Where  there  is  corn  there  coal  and  oil.  Cheyenne  is  located  at  the  base  of  the 
are  usually  hogs,  as  in  the  Central  Plains.  See  map  on  mountains  in  Wyoming,  at  a  break  in  transportation, 
page  55.  Near  the  western  margin,  especially  in  Colo-  where,  in  the  early  days  of  settlement,  many  weary 
rado,  large  crops  of  potatoes  and  sugar  beets  are  raised,  travelers  stopped  to  rest  and  change  their  outfits  before 
Cities.  At  the  western  margin  of  the  Great  Plains,  starting  on  over  the  mountains.  Denver  is  located  just 
near  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  there  are  several  east  of  the  mountains  (Fig.  99).  Smelters,  where  the 
large  cities.  In  the  north  is  Great  Falls  (Montana),  where  ores  from  the  mountains  could  be  treated,  were  early 
there  is  excellent  water-power,  which  is  used  to  generate  established  at  this  city.  Railroads  have  greatly  helped 
electricity.  The  electricity  is  used  locally  for  light  and  the  growth  and  prosperity  of  Denver  as  well  as  all  other 
power,  and  some  is  sent  to  Butte  and  Anaconda  for  use     cities  in  the  Great  Plains. 

in  the  mines  and  in  the  smelters.    Many  of  the  railroad  From  Colorado  Springs  the  view  of  the  mountains  is 

trains  that  cross  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  Montana  are  magnificent.  This  city  is  on  the  plain  east  of  the  foot- 
run  by  electricity  generated  at  Great  Falls.  hills  and  has  become  a  popular  resort.  Pueblo  is  located 
Billings  (Montana)  is  a  noted  sheep  center  and  one  of  at  one  of  the  gateways  into  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Here 
the  principal  wool  markets  of  the  country.  Sheridan  great  smelters  have  been  built  to  take  care  of  the  ores 
(Wyoming)  is  in  the  midst  of  an  active  and  prosperous     produced  in  the  mountain  region.    Trinidad  is  situated 

in  the  midst  of  a  busy  coal-mining  section. 

Throughout  the  middle  portion  of  the  Great  Plains 
the  chief  towns  are  on  the  lines  of  the  railroads  or  in 
the  fertile  valleys. 

Explanation  of  the  Great  Plains.  The  underlying  rocks 
of  this  region  were  made  chiefly  in  an  inland  sea  that 
once  reached  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  Sea  bottoms  are  usually  nearly  level;  and  when 
the  land  rose  and  the  sea  retreated,  a  plain  came  into  ex- 
istence. In  portions  of  western  Texas  one  may  travel  for 
miles  and  miles  without  seeing  a  single  stream  or  a  single 
valley.  The  land  looks  like  a  vast  sea  bottom  from  which 
the  waters  have  been  withdrawn.  Streams  crossing  from 
the  western  mountains  eastward  have  brought  vast  quan- 
tities of  fine  material  which  they  have  spread  over  the 
surface  of  the  plains.     In  northern   Montana  and  in 

©  Kejgtone  View  Co-  i- 

Fig.  97.  Another  farm  machine  is  the  hay-loader,  which  rakes  up  the  hay      parts  of  the  Dakotas  there  are  glacial  soils.    Instead  of 

and  loads  it  on  the  wagon.  This  saves  all  the  labor  of  pitching  it  by  hand.  being   Coarse,   like   the   soils  which  the  ice-sheet   left   in 

The  machine  in  this  view  is  at  work  in  an  alfalfa  field  in  the  Great  Plains.  ^^  England,  these  glacial  Soils  are  fine,  and  especially 

How  many  other  agricultural  machines  can  you  name  ?    Where  are  they  a      .           .  .                .         a                                              j  a 

manufactured  ?   Where  are  the  largest  numbers  of  them  used  ?  Well  suited  for  raising  gram.    See  map  OH  pages  2  and  3. 


58 


GREAT  PLAINS 


Fig.  98.    The  Bad  Lands  of  the  Great  Plains  are  cut  up  into  all  kinds  of 

strange  shapes  and  forms.    This  particular  area  is  appropriately  called 

Toadstool  Park.    Locate  the  Bad  Lands  on  the  map  on  page  55.    Can  you 

explain  the  cause  of  these  curious  surface  features  ? 

Bad  Lands.  In  portions  of  the  Great  Plains,  especially 
in  South  Dakota,  Wyoming,  and  Nebraska,  are  areas 
that  are  called  the  Bad  Lands.  Here  the  rainfall  is  light, 
and  the  soil  and  subsoil  consist  of  soft  clays  and  shales. 
When  rains  do  come  they  are  usually  in  the  form  of 
severe  storms,  and  the  water  falls  in  great  abundance 
for  a  short  period,  as  from  a  cloud-burst.  The  water  cuts 
the  soft  material  into  fantastic  forms  (Fig.  98)  and  car- 
ries the  soil  away.  The  rough  land  is  very  bad  to  travel 
over  and  therefore  received  its  descriptive  name.  The 
Bad  Lands  are  wonderfully  interesting  places  to  visit, 
however,  and  in  the  masses  of  clay  are  found  the  bones 
of  some  of  the  largest  animals  that  have  ever  lived  in 
the  history  of  the  world. 

Black  Hills.  The  Black  Hills  of  South  Dakota  and 
Wyoming  (see  map,  pp.  2,  3)  are  an  outlying  range  of 


the  Rocky  Mountains.  They  were  formed  by  the  folding 
and  uplifting  of  the  rocks.  The  rains  and  streams  have 
taken  away  the  top  of  the  great  fold  and  uncovered  the 
core  rocks,  where  gold,  iron,  tin,  lead,  and  zinc  have  been 
discovered  (Fig.  100).  Since  the  Black  Hills  rise  above 
the  level  of  the  Great  Plains,  they  receive  more  rainfall 
than  the  plains,  and  their  slopes  are  forested.  The  dark 
evergreen  trees  of  the  forest  suggested  the  name  for  the 
hills,  which  from  a  short  distance  look  almost  black. 

Future.  The  irrigation  works  in  the  Great  Plains  are 
sure  to  be  extended  and  improved.  Much  more  of  the 
land  can  be  used  for  dry  farming.  In  addition  more  and 
more  drought-resisting  crops  will  be  introduced,  and  in 
these  ways  agriculture  will  increase  in  the  region.  The 
coal  deposits  in  Nebraska,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas 
will  certainly  be  mined  more  extensively  in  the  future. 
The  chief  occupation  of  this  region,  however,  will  con- 
tinue to  be  the  raising  of  cattle  and  sheep.  There  is  every 
condition  here  to  favor  the  future  development  of  this 
great  industry  on  an  even  larger  scale  than  at  present. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  How  is  agricultural  life 
usually  affected  if  the  rainfall  drops  below  20  inches  a  year? 
2.  Why-do  the  Great  Plains  have  light  rainfall  ?  3.  What  storm 
winds  are  somewhat  common  in  this  region  ?  4.  Where  are  most 
of  the  farms  and  homes  located  ? 

5.  Which  routes  through  this  region  did  the  early  pioneers  to 
the  Far  West  follow  ?  6.  What  do  you  understand  by  a  general 
round-up  ?  7.  Explain  the  growth  of  the  larger  cities  at  the 
western  margin  of  the  Great  Plains. 

8.  What  are  the  chief  crops  of  these  Plains  ?  9.  Where  is 
there  a  large  area  in  the  Great  Plains  with  no  valleys  ?  10.  Why 
are  the  Bad  Lands  so  rough  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Place  on  an  outline  map  the  large  rivers  that  cross 
the  Great  Plains.  2.  Make  a  list  of  the  ten  largest  cities  of  the 
Great  Plains  and  a  similar  list  of  the  ten  largest  cities  of  the 
Central  Plains.  Use  Appendix  tables.  Compare  the  total  popula- 
tions in  these  two  groups.  3.  Make  a  list  of  the  foods  produced 
in  the  Great  Plains  and  compare  them  with  those  which  are  raised 
in  the  Central  Plains.    4.  Read  about  Buffalo  Bill's  life  in  the  West. 


Fig.  99.  Denver,  the  capital  of  Colorado,  is  located  on  the  western  edge  of  the 
Great  Plains,  about  fifteen  miles  from  the  front  range  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. In  this  picture  you  can  see  the  snow-covered  Rockies  in  the  distance. 
Study  your  maps  and  explain  why  Denver  has  become  such  an  important  city 


Fig.  100.  Lead,  South  Dakota,  is  an  important  mining  center  in  the  Black 
Hills.  The  rugged  mountains  of  this  region  are  rich  in  gold,  silver,  lead, 
copper,  and  iron  ores,  and  Lead  contains  one  of  the  largest  gold  mines  of 
the  world.  Explain  the  relation  between  the  Black  Hills  and  the  Great  Plains 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


59 


Fig.  101.  These  men  are  preparing  fora  trip  into  the  Rocky  Mountains.  After 

they  have  strapped  their  baggage  securely  on  the  backs  of  the  mules,  they 

will  mount  their  horses  and  start  off  on  the  mountain  trail,  leading  the  mules. 

What  resources  make  it  worth  while  for  men  to  explore  the  mountains  ? 

ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 

Early  explorations.  Some  of  the  men  who  went  west- 
ward to  California  along  the  trails  of  migration  shown 
on  the  map  (pp.  2,  3)  returned  to  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  here  discovered  gold  in  the  stream  gravels.  They 
usually  camped  by  a  mountain  stream,  and  one  in  the 
party  would  take  some  of  the  gravel  from  the  stream 
bed,  wash  it,  and  test  it  for  gold.  In  that  way  many  of 
the  first  mining  camps  of  the  West  were  located.  Some 
men  picked  up  beautiful  specimens  of  copper  ore ;  others 
found  pieces  of  lead  and  zinc  ores  among  the  loose 
rocks  in  the  canyons. 

In  the  early  days  of  settlement  the  mountain  forests 
had  an  abundance  of  large  game,  and  trout  were  plenti- 
ful in  the  streams.  To  one  who  loved  the  out  of  doors 
the  life  among  the  mountains  was  delightful,  and  it 
continues  to  be  so  to-day.  There  is  still  some  game, 
and  the  streams  are  kept  stocked  with  fish. 

Prospecting  for  ores.  Men  would  spend  weeks  or  even 
months  hunting  for  a  gold  deposit,  and  many  of  them 
made  wonderful  discoveries.  There  are  thousands  of 
old  log  cabins  in  the  mountains  that  were  formerly  the 
homes  of  prospectors.  Whenever  a  rich  discovery  was 
announced,  hundreds  of  people  would  rush  in.  The  first 
mining  was  always  placer  mining,  but  later  tunnels 
were  driven  into  the  hills,  shafts  were  sunk,  and  simple 
mining  machinery  was  installed  (Fig.  103). 

In  those  early  days,  when  there  were  no  railroads  or 
wagon  roads,  all  of  the  mining  equipment  was  brought 
into  the  mountains  on  the  backs  of  horses,  mules  or  even 
little  burros.    Mines  were  sometimes  established  hio-h 

o 

up  on  a  mountain,  where  it  seemed  as  if  no  animal 
could  go.  To-day  there  are  many  mines  to  which  all 
the  supplies  are  brought  on  the  backs  of  animals  that 
come  up  narrow  trails  (Fig.  102),  and  in  some  places 
the  ores  are  sent  down  the  mountains  on  pack  animals. 


Fig.  102.   This  procession  of  mules  is  off  for  the  mines  in  the  mountains, 

each  animal  carrying  two  heavy  planks  bound  to  a  packsaddle.  The  lumber 

will  be  used  in  the  mining  operations.  The  mule,  although  small,  is  strong 

and  sure-footed  and  makes  a  very  useful  pack  animal  in  the  mountains 

Coal,  oil,  gas,  and  marble.  Near  the  mountains,  espe- 
cially in  Wyoming,  where  there  is  an  open,  basin-like 
area  between  the  ranges,  coal,  oil,  and  gas  have  been 
'  found.  In  Wyoming  most  of  the  coal  is  sub-bituminous  ; 
that  is,  coal  of  a  grade  not  quite  as  good  as  bituminous. 
Central  Colorado  is  one  of  the  very  few  places  in  the 
United  States,  outside  of  eastern  Pennsylvania,  where 
anthracite  coal  is  mined.  The  Colorado  mountains  also 
furnish  large  quantities  of  excellent  marble. 

Home  work.  1.  Get  together  your  pictures  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  of  life  in  this  region  and  bring  them  to  school. 
2.  On  your  outline  map  of  the  United  States  color  the  national 
parks  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  3.  Find  out  the  value  of  an 
ounce  of  gold,  an  ounce  of  silver,  a  pound  of  lead,  a  pound  of 
zinc.    4.  Find  out  which  of  these  metals  is  the  heaviest. 


Fig.  103.  Ore  deposits  are  discovered  where  the  mineral  veins  reach  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  The  prospectors  first  examine  the  vein  carefully  to 
find  out  in  what  direction  it  runs  in  the  ground;  they  then  "stake  out  a 
claim,"  or  mark  the  land  they  want  to  hold  for  mining;  samples  of  the 
vein  are  taken  and  analyzed ;  if  the  value  is  sufficient,  lumber  and  machinery 
are  brought  in,  a  mill  is  constructed,  homes  are  built,  and  the  men  begin  to 
sink  a  vertical  shaft,  like  a  well,  and  drive  tunnels  to  one  side  or  the  other 
until  they  strike  the  vein.  The  miners  can  then  blast  out  the  ore,  load  it 
upon  little  cars  which  are  pushed  along  the  tunnels  to  the  shaft,  and  hoist 
it  to  the  surface,  where  it  is  put  through  the  mill 


60 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


Ranch  life.  Some  of  the  Western  explorers  were  at-  the  mountains,  above  the  timber  line  (Fig.  T05).  Here 
tracted  by  the  rich  soils  in  the  valleys  and  in  the  open  a  shepherd  and  his  dogs  will  live  all  summer  long  with 
parks  between  the  mountain  ranges.  There,  in  the  midst  about  two  thousand  sheep.  Every  few  days  the  camp 
of  most  beautiful  scenery, 
they  chose  to  build  their 
homes.  In  those  early  days 
most  of  the  settlers  became 
ranchmen.  Their  cattle  and 
sheep  could  graze  almost 
anywhere.  The  ranchmen 
would  drive  them  into  the 
mountains  during  the  sum- 


mer, and  in  the  winter  feed 

them  in  pastures  near  their 

homes.  During  the  summer 

a  ranchman  would  ride  out 

occasionally  to  see  that  his 

stock  was  getting  along  well 

and  had  plenty  of  salt,  but 

he  would  spend  most  of  his 

time  in  the  fields  near  home, 

raising  hay  and  alfalfa,  so  that  he 

might  be  prepared  to  feed  the  stock 

during  the  winter. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  region  is  not 
yet  densely  settled,  but  the  more  de- 
sirable farm  lands  have  been  taken 
up.  Large  areas  of  the  mountain 
region  are  included  in  the  national 
parks  or  national  forests.  There  is 
some  open  range,  where  anyone  who 
chooses  may  pasture  stock,  but  most 
ranchmen  now  have  a  particular  val- 
ley for  their  cattle  and  a  definite  area 
where  their  sheep  may  graze  during 
the  summer.  Those  who  do  not  own 
grazing  lands  may  pasture  their  stock 
on  an  open  range  or  get  permits  to 
turn  them  into  a  national  forest. 

The  assignment  of  grazing  lands 
in  the  national  forests  is  made  by 
officers  of  the  government,  and  each 
ranchman  pays  a  small  fee  for  every 
animal  pastured.  It  costs  the  ranch- 
man each  year  about  37  cents  per 
head  for  cattle  and  about  7  cents  per 
head  for  sheep. 


Fig.  104.   These  men  are  branding  a  calf.   It  looks  very  cruel,  but  it  really 

does  not  hurt  the  animal  much.  While  one  man  holds  him,  the  other  takes 

a  hot  iron  and  singes  off  the  hair  in  the  form  of  the  owner's  mark,  or  brand. 

Why  is  branding  necessary  in  the  West  ? 


Fig.  105.    These  sheep  are  grazing  on  one  of  the 

open  pastures  high  up  in  the  San  Juan  Mountains. 

What  season  of  the  year  is  it  ?   Can  you  explain 

the  absence  of  trees  here  ? 


tender  will  bring  him  a  sup- 
ply of  food  and  perhaps 
help  him  to  move  his  camp 
to  a  fresh  grazing  field. 

By  September,  when  the 
nights  in  the  high  moun- 
tains become  very  cold  and 
when  heavy  snows  are  quite 
likely  to  fall,  the  shepherds 
begin  to  drive  their  flocks 
into  the  foothills  and  later 
out  to  the  pastures  where 
they  are  to  be  fed  and  pro- 
tected through  the  winter. 
In  the  spring  the  shearing 
is  done.  The  warm  coats 
of  the  sheep  are  clipped, 
and  the  wool  is  shipped  to 
market.  Immediately  after  the  shear- 
ing comes  the  dipping  (Fig.  106),  and 
after  that  the  sheep,  with  their  lambs, 
return  to  the  mountains.  The  sheep 
must  be  branded  each  year,  for  the 
brand  is  of  paint.  Even  the  lambs 
are  usually  branded. 

Orchards.  Many  of  the  mountain 
valleys  have  proved  to  be  good  places 
for  raising  fruit  (Fig.  108).  Large 
quantities  of  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
and  plums  are  raised.  Most  of  the 
fruit  must  be  shipped  to  city  markets. 
Some  of  it  is  canned. 

Location  and  growth  of  cities. 
Within  the  mountain  area  the  loca- 
tion of  certain  of  the  larger  cities 
has  been  determined  by  the  discovery 
of  rich  ores.  Beginning  in  the  north, 
we  find  that  the  chief  mining  centers 
include  Coeur  d'Alene  in  Idaho,  Butte, 
Helena,  and  Virginia  City  in  Montana, 
and  Leadville,  Cripple  Creek,  Ouray, 
Telluride,  and  Silverton  in  Colorado. 
Most  of  the  smaller  cities  in  the 
mountains   owe   their  location   and 


The  sheep  must  be  carefully  guarded,  so  that  bears,  growth  chiefly   to   the   local   development   of   ranches 

wolves,  coyotes,  or  mountain  lions  may  not  get  them,  or  of  orchards,  but  in  every  case  the  construction  of 

They  must  be  kept  in  the  pastures  assigned  to  them,  railroads  has  greatly  benefited  the  cities, 
and  therefore  a  shepherd  is  left  with  each  flock.    Most         NoTE-  For  a  special  study  of  the  cities  in  the  northern  and  southern 

of  the  sheep  pastures  are  in  huge  open  basins  high  in  sections  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  see  pages  72  and  77. 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


61 


Native  vegetation.  The  lower 
slopes  of  the  mountains  and  the 
lands  between  the  ranges,  called 
either  valleys  or  parks,  are  grasslands. 
Next  higher  come  the  forests,  and 
above  the  timber  line  there  is  more 
grass.  The  highest  peaks,  the  very 
steep  places,  and  the  areas  of  loose 
rock  are  without  coverings  of  vege- 
tation. The  trees  of  the  forests  are 
chiefly  pines,  spruces,  and  hemlocks. 
Among  these  great  evergreen  trees 
there  are  some  birch  trees  and  little 
groves  of  quaking  aspen. 

National  forests.  Many  of  the  for- 
ests in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region 
are  now  under  control  of  the  govern- 
ment. They  belong  to  all  the  people 
and  are  cared  for  by  men  trained  in 
forestry.  Each  forest  is  divided,  and 
a  forest  ranger  is  assigned  to  each 
section.  He  rides  over  the  trails, 
watching  for  possible  forest  fires,  and 
sees  that  the  ranchmen  keep  their 
herds  and  flocks  in  the  proper  pas- 
tures. It  is  his  business  to  count  the  cattle  and  sheep 
that  enter  the  national  forest  each  spring  and  to  mark 
the  trees  which  may  be  cut  for  lumber.  Each  ranch- 
man or  settler  is  allowed  by  law  a  certain  amount  of 
wood  every  year  from  the  national  forests.   This  is  to 


Fig.  106.  At  the  dipping  season  the  sheep  are 
pushed  into  a  trough  and  forced  to  swim  through 
a  solution  which  kills  the  ticks,  little  creatures 
that  live  on  the  skin  of  the  animal  and  spread 
deadly  disease 


lumber  business  near  the  national 
forests  may  purchase  from  the  gov- 
ernment such  trees  as  the  forester 
marks  for  this  purpose.  Burned-over 
districts  are  replanted  by  the  Forest 
Service. 

The  range  riders  often  have  their 
homes  in  the  beautiful  canyons 
among  the  mountains.  Each  man 
keeps  several  excellent  saddle  horses. 
In  the  morning  a  fresh  horse  is  caught 
and  saddled,  and  the  ranger  starts 
off  for  a  day's  ride  over  some  of  the 
wonderful  forest  trails  (Fig.  192).  In 
many  places  the  trails  are  along  the 
very  tops  of  the  mountains.  In 
southern  Colorado  there  is  a  trail 
known  as  the  Continental  Divide 
trail,  which  follows  the  great  water- 
shed for  nearly  a  hundred  miles  (Fig. 
109).  As  the  ranger  rides  over  it  the 
forests  appear  on  either  side  below 
him.  He  can  see  for  miles  and  miles 
and  can  easily  detect  the  beginning 
of  a  forest  fire.  In  some  places  out- 
look towers  have  been  built  for  the  rangers.  There  are 
telephones  connecting  the  ranger  stations,  so  that  the 
men  can  quickly  communicate  the  news  of  a  fire  or  of 
stray  sheep  or  cattle. 

When   a  forest  ranger  must  be  gone  overnight  or 


help  him  with  his  buildings  and  fences.  If  the  ranch-  possibly  for  two  or  three  days,  he  usually  puts  a  camp 
man  wants  more  wood  than  his  allowance,  he  may  buy  bed,  a  supply  of  provisions,  possibly  his  fishing  rod,  and 
it  from  a  national  forest.  Those  who  wish  to  go  into  the     a  few  cooking  utensils  on  the  back  of  a  small  mule  and 


P.  H.  Troutman,  Canon  City,  Colo. 


Fig.  107.  This  is  Silverton,  Colorado,  on  a  winter  evening.  Silverton  is  a 

typical  Rocky  Mountain  mining  town,  which  has  grown  up  because  of  the 

rich  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  zinc  ores  which  have  been  found  in 

the  surrounding  mountains.   Locate  Silverton  on  your  map 


Fig.  108.    On  cold  nights  the  Colorado  fruit-growers  burn  oil  in  their  or- 
chards.   The  cloud  of  smoke  which  rises  from  the  flaming  oil  pots  hangs 
over  the  orchard  like  a  blanket  and  prevents  the  heat  of  the  earth  from 
escaping.   In  this  way  the  fruit  trees  are  protected  from  frost 


62 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


eaj  of  WimJl  Bros,  and  Deafer  Tourist  Bureau 


Fig.  109.    The  trail  over  the  Continental  Divide  in  Colorado  zigzags  up 

over  the  slopes  and  is  so  narrow  that  the  horses  must  go  in  single  file. 

Trace  the  line  of  the  Continental  Divide  on  your  map.   At  what  points  did 

the  early  pioneers  cross  it  ?   See  map  on  pages  2  and  3 

starts  off  on  a  saddle  horse,  leading  the  pack  animal. 
With  such  an  outfit  he  can  travel  and  live  independently, 
for  his  hotel  travels  with  him.  His  route  may  take  him 
through  a  beautiful  canyon  or  high  over  the  mountains. 
He  may  follow  a  trail  in  the  forest  or  be  far  above  the 
timber  line,  where  the  sheep  are  grazing.  For  his  camp 
he  will  select  a  place  where  there  is  good  grass  for  his 
saddle  horse  and  pack  mule  and  a  supply  of  water  and 
firewood.  The  pack  and  the  saddles  are  taken  off,  and 
the  animals  are  turned  out  to  graze  overnight.  He  may 
catch  a  few  mountain  trout  and  then  build  a  fire  and 
cook  his  evening  meal.  A  few  fir  boughs,  properly  laid 
down,  make  a  good  bed  for  him.  Next  morning  after 
breakfast  he  must  pack  up  and  start  over  new  trails, 
through  deep  canyons,  or  over  high  crest-lines,  by  beauti- 
ful lakes  and  wonderful  waterfalls.  Such  is  the  ranger's 
life  in  summer.  During  the  winter  he  supervises  the 
cutting  of  timber. 

Home  work.   Make  out  as  long  a  list  as  you  can  of  the  different 
varieties  of  trees  that  grow  in  the  forests  of  the  United  States. 


Fig.  111.   In  winter,  when  the  snow  is  deep  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  it  is 

hard  to  keep  the  railroad  tracks  clear  so  that  the  trains  may  go  through. 

This  view  shows  five  engines  pushing  a  railroad  snowplow  up  grade.  Why 

is  the  snowfall  so  heavy  in  this  region  ? 


Fig.  110.   This  is  a  distant  view  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  National  Park.   It 

is  in  the  heart  of  the  Rockies  in  north  central  Colorado,  and  its  peaks  rise 

to  more  than  thirteen  thousand  feet.  Locate  this  park  on  your  map.   How 

many  of  our  national  parks  are  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  ? 

Water-power.  When  the  rain  falls  in  these  high  moun- 
tains, it  collects  in  little  rivulets,  which  unite  to  make 
mountain  streams.  These  often  descend  through  the 
canyons  as  rushing  torrents.  The  snows  which  fall 
nearly  every  month  in  the  year  contribute  water  to  the 
streams,  especially  during  the  summer  season.  Where 
the  streams  come  to  cliffs  or  precipices  in  their  courses, 
there  are  waterfalls.  Near  the  mining  camps,  where 
power  is  needed  for  running  the  drills,  hoisting  the  ores, 
running  the  mills,  and  lighting  the  mines,  the  water- 
power  is  often  utilized  to  generate  electricity.  The 
power  plant  is  usually  located  near  a  waterfall,  and 
the'  electricity  is  transmitted  by  wire  over  the  tops 
of  mountains,  if  neces- 
sary, to  where  the  mines 
are  located.  Most  mining 
towns  are  lighted  by 
electricity.  At  Shoshone, 
Colorado,  near  Glenwood 
Springs,  is  one  of  the 
very  large  power  plants. 
From  this  point  electric- 
ity is  transmitted  over 
copper  conductors,  sup- 
ported on  steel  towers,  for 
distances  of  more  than 
150  miles.  Denver  and 
many  of  the  cities  and 
mines  in  central  Colo- 
rado receive  power  from 
the  Shoshone  plant. 

A  few  of  the  railroads 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains 
are  now  run  by  elec- 
tricity, and  some  day  all 
of  them  may  be  oper- 
ated by  electric  power. 


regorv  3t  Cheney,  (Jura;,  Colu. 


Fig.  112.    High  up  on  the  slopes  of  the 
mountains,  where  there  is  much  snow 
and  only  a  little  vegetation,  live  thou- 
sands of  wild  Rocky  Mountain  sheep 


b 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


63 


Problems  and  review  questions. 
1.  What  first  attracted  men  to 
settle  in  this  region  ?  2.  Describe 
the  life  of  a  prospector.  3.  What 
are  now  the  chief  resources 
within  this  region  ?  4.  Why 
should  stock-raising  be  profitable 
among  the  mountains  ?  5.  Why 
must  the  sheep  be  guarded  ? 

6.  Where  are  their  summer 
feeding  grounds  ?  7.  Why  should 
the  government  charge  a  board 
bill  for  sheep  and  cattle  that 
graze  in  the  national  forests  ? 
8.  What  are  the  various  duties 
of  a  forest  ranger  ?  9.  What 
sources  of  power  are  there  in 
this  region  ? 

10.  Why  should  the  mountain 
scenery  be  considered  a  valuable 
natural  resource  to  the  American 
people  ?  11.  What  occupations 
may  attract  more  settlers  to  the 

Rocky  Mountain  region  ?    12.  What  has  determined  the  location 
of  the  larger  cities  in  this  region  ?    Give  several  examples. 

13.  How  much  rain  falls  in  these  mountains  ?  See  map  on 
page  82.  14.  How  do  seasonal  changes  in  climate  affect  the  life 
of  the  stock-raiser  ?  of  the  forest  ranger  ? 


each  mountain  fold  was 
cut  by  streams  and  by 
glaciers.  The  rock  that  was 
in  the  center,  or  was  the 
core  of  the  mountain  range, 
appears  now  in  the  peaks, 
while  the  upturned  rocks 
in  the  foothills  on  either 
side  are  what  is  left  of  the 
great  layers  that  made  the 
top  of  the  fold,  or  arch. 

In  some  places  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  when  the 
earth  was  being  folded  and 
uplifted,  volcanoes  broke 
out  and  built  up  mountains 
of  lava  mixed  with  rock 
fragments  that  were  thrown 
into  the  air.  Great  sheets 
of  lava  poured  forth  and  covered  hundreds  of  square 
miles  of  the  surrounding  country. 

National  parks.  In  northern  Montana  at  the  east 
margin  of  the  mountain  area  is  Glacier  National  Park. 
This  is  a  region  of  magnificent  mountains,  beautiful 
Mountain  scenery.  No  one  can  visit  the  Rocky  Mown-  lakes,  many  small  glaciers,  and  with  forests,  shrubs, 
tains  without  wondering  how  they  were  made,  why  grasses,  and  an  alpine  flora  that  add  to  the  beauty  of 
the  rocks  in  some  places  stand  straight  up  and  in  almost  every  view  (Figs.  114,  116). 
other  places  are  horizontal,  why  in  some  places  they  Yellowstone  National  Park  is  chiefly  in  northwestern 
are  sandstones  and  limestones  and  in  other  places  Wyoming.  It  is  a  region  where  there  were  many  active 
granites,  marbles,  or  great  thick  layers  of  lava.  The  volcanoes.  Below  the  surface  there  are  hot  rocks  which 
entire  region  is  a  real  wonderland  of  natural  beauty,     heat    the   waters    circulating   through  the  cracks  and 

'--/iOCKj 


Photograph  lv  H&jnea 

Fig.  113.  These  are  a  few  of  the  thirty  thousand  elk  which  roam  through 

the  Yellowstone  National  Park.   Our  government  is  making  a  great  effort 

to  preserve  the  wild  animal  life  of  our  forests  and  plains  by  enforcing 

strict  laws  about  hunting.   Why  is  this  wise  ? 


Fig.  115.  Diagram  of  a  mountain  fold  the  top  of 
which  has  been  cut  away 


)  E.  B.  Marble 

Fig.  114.   This  is  one  of  the  ninety  glaciers  from 

which  Glacier  National  Park  takes  its  name.  They 

are  the  small  remnants  of  the  great  continental 

ice-sheet  which  once  spread  over  this  area 


The  outer  por- 
tion of  the  earth, 
in  the  region  of 
the  -Rocky  Moun- 
tains, was  com- 
pressed, and  the 
rocks  were  arched,  - 
or  upfolded,  as  in 
Fig.  115.  Rains, 
winds,  frosts,  and 
glaciers  all  helped 
to  wear  away  the 
tops  of  the  folds. 
Little    by    little 


fissures,  and  the 
waters  come  out  of 
the  ground  as  hot 
springs  and  gey- 
sers (Fig.  119). 

Rocky  Moun- 
tain National  Park 
is  in  the  central 
part  of  northern 
Colorado.  This  is 
a  region  of  high 
mountains,  broad 
valleys,  and  fine 
forests  (Fig.  110). 


)  K.  E.  Marble 

Fig.  116.   Glacier    National    Park    also   contains 

many  beautiful  lakes.   They  occupy  parts  of  the 

valley  floors  which  were  broadened  and  deepened 

by  the  glaciers.  This  one  is  Lake  Ellen  Wilson 


64 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


J  (Jifford  (tor  Northern  PftCiBc  R.R.) 

Fig.  117.   The  Great  Falls  of  the  Yellowstone  River  are  among  the  wonders 

of  Yellowstone  National  Park.   The  water  falls  over  a  sheer  precipice  three 

hundred  feet  to  the  canyon  below.  How  do  these  falls  compare  in  height 

with  those  of  Niagara  ?  Locate  Yellowstone  National  Park  on  your  map 

Ice  age  in  the  mountains.  When  the  continental  ice- 
sheets  formed  in  Canada  and  advanced  into  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  United  States,  there  were  thousands  of 
smaller  glaciers  in  the  Rocky  Mountains.  At  that  time 
snows   accumulated  near  the   summits  to   such   great 


Photograph  bj  Hayaea 

Fig.  118.   The  beautiful  hot-spring  terraces  in  the  Yellowstone  National 

Park  have  been  built  up  by  the  white  limy  deposits  from  the  cooling 

waters  of  the  springs.   These  terraces  are  gorgeously  colored  with  bands  of 

bright  red  and  yellow,  while  the  water  in  the  pools  is  a  deep  blue-green 

Future.  We  have  found  the  chief  occupations  in  this 
region  to  be  mining,  grazing,  farming,  lumbering,  and 
fruitrraising.  More  and  more  people  are  sure  to  settle 
here  and  go  into  one  or  another  of  these  lines  of  work. 

There  is  a  wonderful  supply  of  water-power  in  the 


depth  that  ice  was  formed,  and  the  ice  moved  down  the     mountains,  and  relatively  little  of  it  is  used.    It  is  prob- 


canyons,  deepening  each  gorge  and  carrying  away  the 
loose  material. 

Many  of  these  glaciers  reached  the  foothills  of  the 
ranges  and  some  advanced  for  short  distances  over  the 
bordering  lower  lands.  The  deposits  of  morainal  material 
indicate  how  far  the  glaciers  extended  over  the  lowlands. 

In  time  the  climate  changed ;  there 
was  less  snowfall  in  the  mountains ; 
all  of  the  glaciers  became  smaller 
because  of  melting,  and  most  of  them 
disappeared  (Fig.  114). 

The  glaciated  canyons  have  the 
glacial  drift,  or  moraines,  in  them ; 
for  when  the  ice  melted,  it  left  on 
the  bottom  of  the  canyon  all  the 
stones,  sands,  gravels,  and  clays  that 
it  was  carrying.  In  some  places  these 
moraines  blocked  the  drainage,  and 
lakes  were  formed.  Sometimes  the  ice 
gouged  out  the  solid  rock  and  made 
basins  where  waters  have  accumu- 
lated and  formed  lakes. 

In  places  the  main  canyons  were 
deepened  so  much  more  than  the 
tributary  valleys  that  the  tributary 
streams  now  fall  from  the  side  val- 
leys into  the  main  canyons,  thus 
making  many  beautiful  waterfalls. 


Photograph  bj  Hajmes 

Fig.  119.  "Old  Faithful,"  the  most  famous  Yellow- 
stone geyser,  erupts  regularly  every  sixty-five  min- 
utes, throwing  a  stream  of  hot  water  one  hundred 
and  twenty  feet  into  the  air 


able  that  some  day  all  the  people  will  have  electricity 
for  lighting  and  heating  their  homes  and  for  running 
their  sewing  and  washing  machines  and  their  saws  for 
cutting  firewood.  Electricity  could  be  used  for  cooking 
and  for  ironing  in  the  mountain  homes.  Perhaps  this 
will  come  about  sometime,  when  the  mountain  com- 
munities plan  to  cooperate. 

The  forests  will  be  a  constant 
source  of  lumber  and  will  afford 
pleasure  to  all  who  live  in  them  or 
visit  them.  The  harmless  varieties 
of  wild  game  should  become  more 
abundant.  Airships  may  be  used  to 
patrol  the  forests.  Each  year  thou- 
sands of  busy  people  will  seek  a 
change  from  the  active  life  of  our 
large  cities  in  a  vacation  spent  in  this 
region  of  magnificent  scenery,  good 
fishing,  and  cool  summer  climate. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Ex- 
plain briefly  the  ways  in- which  these  high 
mountains  were  made.  2.  Are  there  any 
glaciers  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  to-day  ? 
3.  What  signs  of  ancient  glaciers  are  there 
in  the  mountains  ?  4.  Where  did  these 
glaciers  form  ?  5.  Why  did  they  dis- 
appear ?  6.  By  what  natural  forces  are  the 
mountains  worn  down  ?  7.  What  national 
parks  are  within  this  region  ? 


WESTERN  PLATEAUS 


65 


WESTERN  PLATEAUS  tneir  ancest0rs  settled  long  ago,  when  they  feared  the 

These  plateaus  extend  from  north  to  south  between     attacks  of  hostile  tribes.   In  many  of  the  canyon  walls 

the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  east  and  the  Cascade  and     there  are  the  ruins  of  ancient  cliff-dwellings  (Fig.  120). 

Sierra  Nevada  on  the  west.    The  chief  subdivisions  are     Those  people  made  their  homes  where  they  could  easily 

fight  off  enemy  tribes.    The 


the  Columbia  Plateau,  the 
Great  Basin,  and  the  Colo- 
rado Plateau.  See  map  on 
pages  2  and  3. 

A  problem.  Use  map  op- 
posite page  82.  Suppose  we 
think  of  a  high  plateau 
country  in  the  temperate 
zone  nearly  surrounded  by 
mountains.  Suppose  there 
are  canyons  more  than  a 
mile  deep  in  the  plateau, 
and  mountain  ranges  rising 
from  2000  to  5000  feet  above 
its  general  level.  The  region 
has  a  very  dry  climate  with 


Fig.  120.  In  the  Mesa  Verde  National  Park  in  Colorado  are  the  wonderful  ruins 
of  the  cliff -dwellers,a  prehistoric  people  who  made  their  homes  under  the  over- 
hanging cliffs  of  the  great  wooded  mesa.  This  is  the  Cliff  Palace,  the  largest 
of  the  dwellings.  It  is  300  feet  long  and  originally  contained  200  rooms 


cliff-dwellers  irrigated  the 
lands  in  the  canyons,  raised 
vegetables,  and  hunted  wild 
game. 

White  settlers.  The  white 
people  who  have  settled  in 
this  plateau  region  have 
been  attracted  by  the  rich 
deposits  of  minerals  in  the 
mountain  ranges  of  the 
desert  or  by  the  fertile  soils. 
The  lands  about  the  margin 
of  the  desert  are  most  easily 
irrigated,  and  many  of  the 
cities  and  towns  are  on  the 


less  than  10  inches  of  rainfall  annually  over  the  greater 
part,  but  with  from  10  to  20  inches  in  certain  portions. 
What  would  primitive  peoples  do  for  a  living  in  such 
a  region  ?  Where  would  they  make  their  settlements  ? 
Would  civilized  people  want  to  live  there  ?  What  occupa- 
tions would  they  find  profitable  ?  Where  would  they  build 
their  homes?  What  would  they  do  for  water?  This  is 
a  large  geographic  problem,  and  it  is  a  real  problem 
for  the  people  who  are  trying  to  make  a  living  in  the 
great  plateau  region  of  our  Western  states. 

Native  tribes.  Several  tribes  of  Indians  now  live 
on  these  plateaus.  They  make  their  settlements  near 
the  streams  in  order  to  have  drinking  water  and  a 
chance  to  irrigate  some  of  the  land  (Figs.  121,  123). 
In  America  some 
of  the  tribes  of 
Indians  practiced 
irrigation  before 
the  white  men  did. 
These  people  raise 
sheep  and  horses. 
The  Navajo  Indi- 
ans are  good  shep- 
herds. They  are 
also  expert  weav- 
ers and  make 
much  of  the  wool 
from  their  flocks 
into  blankets. 

Some  of  the  In- 
dian tribes  live  on 
mesa  tops,  where 


Fig.  121.  This  is  a  typical  village  of  the  Colorado  Plateau.  It  is  located  in  the  dry  valley,  or  "  wash," 

as  it  is  called,  of  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Colorado  River.  The  little  stream  which  flows  at  times 

through  the  wash  furnishes  water  for  irrigating  the  fields.  Notice  the  low,  flat-roofed  buildings  and, 

in  the  distance,  the  barren,  level  surface  of  the  plateau 


edge  of  the  desert,  where  great  irrigation  projects  have 
been  developed.  See  maps  on  pages  73  and  76.  The 
white  people  often  get  their  water  from  the  neighboring 
mountains.  Reservoirs  are  made,  and  the  waters  are 
piped  for  many  miles  to  the  settlements.  The  mining 
towns  must  of  course  be  located  near  the  place  where 
the  ores  are  discovered.  This  means  that  they  are  in 
or  near  the  desert  ranges. 

Rainfall.  When  a  land  is  surrounded  or  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  mountains  it  is  quite  sure  to  be  a  semidesert, 
possibly  a  desert.  The  winds  that  cross  our  plateau  states 
come  chiefly  from  the  southwest.  They  take  up  an 
abundance  of  moisture  as  they  pass  over  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  but  as  the  air  rises  to  cross  the  Coast  Ranges  and 

then  the  Cascade 
Mountains  or  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  the 
moisture  is  forced 
out  and  falls  as 
rain  or  snow  on 
the  windward  sides 
of  the  mountain 
ranges.  When  the 
air  descends  into 
the  plateau  region, 
it  becomes  warm. 
Warm  air  tends  to 
take  up  more  mois- 
ture; so  the  winds, 
as  they  pass  east- 
ward across  the 
plateaus,  tend  to 


66 


WESTERN  PLATEAUS 


dry  up  the  country  rather  than  to  give  up  their  moisture.         Great  dams  have  been  built  across  the  larger  rivers, 
Some  of  the  local  mountain  ranges  within  this  semidesert     thus    creating   artificial   lakes,   or    reservoirs,    for   the 


region  succeed  in  getting  a  little  rain 
from  the  winds.  Trees  and  grasses 
will  grow  on  these  mountains,  while 
the  surrounding  plateau  surface  will 
have  little  but  sagebrush,  grease- 
wood,  cacti,  and  yucca  (Fig.  122  and 
map  opposite  page  82). 

Changes  in  temperature.  In  all 
arid  regions  the  temperature  varies 
greatly  between  night  and  day. 
When  there  is  little  or  no  moisture 
in  the  air,  the  ground  during  the  day 
becomes  very  warm.  In  summer  the 
stones  are  so  hot  that  it  is  uncomfortable  to  touch  them 


Fig.  122.    This  is  the  beautiful  cholla  cactus,  one 

of  the  plants  which  grow  on  the  dry  Colorado 

Plateau.    The  prickly  spines  which  surround  the 

stem  are  characteristic  of  desert  vegetation 


storage  of  the  stream  waters  at  the 
flood  seasons.  From  the  reservoirs 
the  water  is  carried  by  canals  to  the 
lands  that  are  to  be  irrigated,  and 
is  then  distributed  to  the  separate 
fields  by  means  of  small  canals  or 
ditches.  In  this  way  the  water  can 
be  turned  into  the  fields  at  just  the 
time  and  in  just  the  amount  that  is 
needed.  By  means  of  these  govern- 
ment irrigation  projects  thousands 
of  acres  in  the  Western  Plateaus  are 
being  irrigated,  and  the  farmers  of 
this  region  are  thus  able  to  raise  successfully  large  crops 


The  air  just  above  the  ground  also  becomes  very  warm,     of  grain,  forage,  fruits,  vegetables,  and  cotton. 
In  the  southern  part  of  this 


region  the  temperature  rises 
to  120  degrees  Fahrenheit 
during  the  summer  days. 
When  night  comes  the  heat 
passes  off  through  the  air 
very  rapidly;  the  stones 
and  earth  become  cold,  and 
the  air  above  the  ground 
loses  its  heat.  The  tempera- 
ture continues  to  fall  until 
sunrise  of  the  next  day,  and 
the  hours  just   before  the 


Fig.  123.   This  is  one  of  the  Indian  villages  of  the  arid  Southwest.    The 

houses  are  made  of  adobe,  or  bricks  of  sun-dried  clay,  and  are  grouped  about 

an  open  central  square,  or  plaza.   Why  are  the  houses  not  made  of  wood  ? 

What  do  the  people  do  for  a  living  ? 


Physical  Features 

The  Columbia  Plateau  is 

made  of  extensive  flows  of 
lava.  The  lava  poured  out 
of  the  earth  along  great 
cracks,  or  fissures,  and 
spread  over  the  country. 
One  flow  followed  another 
until  the  lava  was  over  a 
mile  in  depth.  It  filled  up  all 
the  low  places  and  buried 
hills  and  even  mountains. 


sun  rises  are  the  coldest  of  all  the  twenty-four  hours.     To-day  the  mountains  that  remain,  of  which  the  Blue 
Irrigation.    In  many  parts  of  the  plateaus  the  soils     Mountains  of  Oregon  are  a  good  example,  are  nearly. 

are    fertile    and     buried    in    lava. 


Fig.  124.    This  is  a  Hopi  Indian  house  near  the 

Grand  Canyon.  It  is  built  exactly  as  the  ancestors 

of  the  Hopis  built  their  homes  centuries  ago,  and 

in  it  live  a  large  number  of  Hopi  families 


deep,  but  there 
is  not  enough 
water  for  farm- 
ing. Irrigation 
from  the  rivers 
that  rise  in  the 
high  mountains 
has  long  been 
practiced  by  in- 
dividual farmers. 
Since  1900  the 
Federal  govern- 
ment has  begun 
to  provide  water 
for  the  irrigation 
of  this  region 
through  twelve 
national  irriga- 
tion projects. 


Later  on,  rivers 
cut  their  valleys 
through  the  lava, 
and  two  of  them, 
the  Columbia  and 
the  Snake,  have 
made  wonderful- 
canyons  in  the 
plateau.  In  the 
canyon  walls  of 
the  Snake  River, 
far  below  the 
present  surface  of 
the  country,  can 
be  seen  the  out- 
lines of  the  old 
hills  which  were 
buried  by  great 
outflows  of  lava. 


Fig.  125.  This  Hopi  Indian  girl  is  very  skillful  in 
the  art  of  basket-making.   The  weaving  of  beau- 
tiful baskets  and  rugs,  often  wonderfully  colored, 
is  an  important  industry  among  these  Indians 


WESTERN  PLATEAUS 


67 


Great  Basin.  South  of  the  Columbia  Plateau,  and  in-  magnificent  scenic  feature  on  the  earth  (Fig.  126).  For 
eluding  most  of  Nevada  and  parts  of  Utah,  Arizona,  250  miles  the  Colorado  River  has  cut  a  gorge  into  the 
and  California,  there  is  a  region  bounded  by  mountains     plateau  ;  in  one  place  this  gorge  is  nearly  6000  feet  deep. 


where  there  is  inland  drainage ; 
that  is,  the  streams  cannot  flow 
to  the  sea.  The  rains  that  fall 
on  the  neighboring  mountains 
flow  into  the  basin,  where  most 
of  the  streams  either  dry  up  or 
sink  into  the  ground.  A  few 
streams  empty  into  lakes,  some 
of  which  have  no  outlets.  The 
best  example  of  this  kind  of  lake 
is  Great  Salt  Lake,  where  the 
water  contains  nearly  as  much 
salt  as  it  can  possibly  hold  in 
solution.  Each  stream  that  flows 
into  the  lake  brings  in  some  salt, 
and  as  the  water  is  lost  from  the 
lake  by  evaporation  the  lake  has 
become  more  and  more  salty. 

During  the  ice  age,  when  the 
climate  was  less  dry,  this  lake  was 
a  thousand  feet  deeper  than  it 
is  now  and  spread  over  much  of 
western  Utah.  At  that  time  it 
had  an  outlet  to  the  Snake  River 
and  was  a  fresh-water  lake. 

Between  the  mountain  ranges 
in  this  basin  region  there   are 


Fig.  126.  If  you  could  stand  beside  the  Indian  in  this  picture, 
you  would  be  looking  out  over  the  greatest  gorge  in  the  world, 
—  the  Grand  Canyon,  which  the  Colorado  River  has  carved  in 
the  level  plateau  of  Arizona.  The  opposite  rim  of  the  canyon 
is  twelve  miles  away,  and  the  river  itself  is  over  a  mile  below 


If  ten  columns  the  size  of  the 
Washington  Monument  were 
placed  one  upon  the  other,  rising 
from  the  stream  level,  they  would 
not  quite  reach  the  elevation  of 
the  rim  of  the  canyon.  If  all  of 
Mt.  Washington  above  sea  level 
could  be  placed  in  this  gorge, 
its  summit  would  rise  only  a  few 
feet  above  the  rim.  From  the 
rim  of  the  gorge  the  river  at  the 
bottom  of  the  canyon  appears  no 
larger  than  a  tiny  brook. 

In  its  most  magnificent  portion 
the  canyon  is  from  10  to  12  miles 
wide,  and  yet  in  the  clear,  dry 
air  of  the  desert  the  farther  wall 
appears  to  be  much  less  than  a 
mile  away.  The  canyon  is  per- 
haps most  remarkable  for  its 
coloring  and  for  the  great  variety 
in  the  rock  formations.  Each 
layer  of  rock  has  some  distinc- 
tive shade.  There  are  bands  of 
red,  green,  brown,  and  gray. 
One  layer,  about  500  feet  thick, 
has  a  brilliant  red  color ;    this 


large  quantities  of  sands  and  gravels  and  fine  soils,  which     layer  is  so  situated  that  it  may  be  seen  from  any  point 


streams  have  brought  from  the  mountains  and  spread  out 
on  the  lower  lands.  The  soils  are  excellent  and,  when 
water  is  brought  to  them,  wonderful  crops  are  raised. 

Death  Valley  is  in  the  Great  Basin.  It  is  east  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  in  southern  California  and  is  the  lowest 
land  area  in  the  United 
States.  The  bottom  of  the 
valley  is  from  250  to  280 
feet  below  sea  level. 

Colorado  Plateau.  South- 
east of  the  Great  Basin,  and 
including  parts  of  Utah, 
Colorado,  Arizona,  and  New 
Mexico,  is  ■  the  Colorado 
Plateau  (see  map,  p.  76). 
This  is  probably  better 
known  and  more  remark- 
able than  any  other  plateau 
in  the  world.  Its  fame  is 
due  chiefly  to  the  Grand 
Canyon,  which  is  the  most 


Fig.  127.  This  is  one  of  the  four  great  natural  bridges  in  southeastern  Utah, 

which  are  the  largest  in  the  world.   The  people  standing  on  top  give  an  idea 

of  its  great  size.  Compare  this  view  with  Fig.  60.  How  do  you  suppose  this 

bridge  could  have  been  made  in  so  dry  a  region  ? 


on  the  rim.  Bordering  the  canyon  on  the  south  there 
is  a  forest  of  yellow  pines  with  beautiful  open  parks. 
In  the  canyon  itself  the  vegetation  is  chiefly  that  of  a 
desert,  with  sagebrush,  a  few  cedars,  and  cacti. 

Sitting  on  the  rim  of  this  great  gorge,  one  sees  the 

colors  change  from  hour 
to  hour  with  the  change 
in  the  sun's  position  or  as 
clouds  shade  one  portion  or 
another.  Sometimes  clouds 
form  below  the  rim.  Light- 
ning is  seen  to  flash  through 
the  clouds,  thunder  is  heard, 
and  rain  falls  in  the  canyon. 
As  the  storm  clears  away, 
the  whole  scene  changes ; 
the  vegetation  has  been 
freshened  and  the  rocks 
that  have  been  moistened 
during  the  rain  have  a 
peculiar  brilliancy  of  color. 


68 


WESTERN  PLATEAUS 


Fig.  128.   This  is  Bingham,  one  of  the  important  mining  centers  of  Utah. 

Notice  the  way  in  which  the  city  has  spread  up  the  two  valleys  which  meet 

in  the  foreground  of  the  view.  In  the  background  is  the  mountain  of  copper 

ore  which  caused  the  development  of  the  city 

If  one  descends  to  the  stream,  as  is  possible  at  a  few 
places  by  following  carefully  made  trails,  the  water  is 
seen  to  be  yellow.  It  is  about  the  color  of  coffee  with 
cream  in  it.  When  a  sample  of  the  water  is  taken  and 
allowed  to  stand,  a  thick  layer  of  yellow  mud  settles  to 
the  bottom.  This  mud  tells  the  story  of  the  making  of 
this  wonderful  gorge.  The  canyon  was  carved  and  is  still 
being  deepened  by  the  stream  which  flows  through  it 
and  by  the  little  streams  that  flow  down  the  canyon 
walls.    This  work  has  taken  millions  of  years. 

Home  work.  1.  Read  about  the  cliff-dwellings  in  the  Mesa  Verde 
National  Park.  2.  Read  about  the  Navajo,  the  Acoma,  and  the 
Hopi  Indians.  3.  Read  a  special  description  of  the  Grand  Canyon 
of  the  Colorado  River. 

Discovery  of  natural  resources.  See  maps  on  pages  73 
and  76.  As  white  men  came  to  know  this  part  of  the 
western  country,  they  discovered  certain  portions  where, 
with  the  help  of  irrigation,  agriculture  could  be  carried 
on  very  successfully.  They  also  discovered  gold,  copper, 
silver,  and  iron.  Borax  has  been  found  within  this 
region,  and  there  are  many  places  where  salt  is  secured. 


The  waters  of  Great  Salt  Lake  are  pumped  into  fields 
surrounded  by  dikes  and  then  allowed  to  evaporate. 
As  the  water  is  taken  up  into  the  air  the  salt  is  left  on 
the  ground ;  later  it  is  plowed  up  and  sent  to  a  refinery, 
where  it  is  prepared  for  market. 

Growth  of  mining  centers.  Bingham  in  Utah  (Fig.  128), 
Reno,  Carson  City,  Virginia  City,  Tonopah,  and  Goldfield  in 
Nevada,  and  Jerome,  Globe,  Clifton,  and  Bisbee  in  Arizona 
are  among  the  many  mining  centers  that  have  grown 
up  in  this  region.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  and 
some  other  minerals  are  obtained. 

Farming  and  fruit-raising  with  irrigation.  Wonderful 
changes  have  been  made  through  irrigation.  Large 
areas  of  dusty  sagebrush  deserts  have  been  transformed 
into  beautiful,  green,  and  productive  garden  spots. 
Just  west  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains  in  Utah,  in  the 
fertile  valley  of  the  Jordan  River,  there  is  a  chain  of 


■ '"  •■■■ . 

|    < 

■ 

■**2jI^B*^ 

■  f  _4C' 

LI-'" 

Fig.  129.  The  falls  of  the  Spokane  River  provide  valuable  water-power  for  the  city  of  Spokane  and 

make  possible  its  manufacturing  industries.   This  view  shows  the  lower  falls  as  they  rush  over  the 

great  dam.  Above  the  dam  is  the  power  plant  which  transforms  the  water-power  into  electric  power. 

How  many  other  cities  can  you  name  which  have  developed  because  of  water-power  ? 


Fig.  130.  Salt  Lake  City  was  founded  in  1847  in  the  desert  just  west  of  the 
Wasatch  Mountains.  By  irrigation  from  the  mountain  streams  this  desert 
region  was  made  fertile  and  productive.  To-day  the  city  is  an  important 
railroad  terminus  and  the  business  center  of  the  irrigated  farming  country 
which  surrounds  it.  Locate  Salt  Lake  City  on  your  map 

agricultural  settlements  where  irrigation  is  practiced. 
Ogden,  Salt  Lake  City  (Fig.  130),  and  Provo,  three  of  the 
largest  cities  in  Utah,  are  located  at  the  western  base  of 
the  Wasatch  Mountains  in  the  midst  of  irrigated  lands. 
In  Idaho,  bordering  the  valley  of  the 
Snake  River,  and  in  Washington,  near 
the  Columbia  River,  there  are  sev- 
eral large  irrigation  projects.  Spokane 
(Washington)  (Fig.  129)  has  grown  up 
on  the  very  margin  of  the  Columbia 
Plateau,  at  the  edge  of  the  mountain 
belt.  At  Wenatchee  in  the  Columbia  val- 
ley, in  the  Yakima  and  Boise  valleys, 
and  in  many  other  places  there  are 
wonderful  orchards  (Fig.  132). 

The  Salt  River  irrigation  project  in 
Arizona  has  led  to  the  extensive  produc- 
tion of  the  long-fiber  Egyptian  cotton 
in  the  vicinity  of  Phoenix. 


WESTERN  PLATEAUS 


69 


Dry  farming.  In  certain  parts  of  the  Columbia  Plateau 
where  the  soils  are  rich,  but  where  there  is  not  sufficient 
water  for  irrigating  the  land,  the  settlers  practice  dry 
farming.  The  soils  are  carefully  cultivated  so  as  to 
make  the  surface  material  as  fine  as  possible.  That  will 
delay  the  evaporation  of  moisture. 

In  places  great  crops  of  wheat  are  raised  where  for- 
merly nothing  but  sagebrush   grew.    The  roots  of  the 


Fig.  131.   This  sturdy  pair  of  horses  is  hauling  a  load  of  baled  hay  to  mar- 
ket in  central  Washington.  This  part  of  the  state  receives  a  light  rainfall, 
but  irrigation  and  dry  farming  have  turned  it  into  a  good  farming  country. 
What  are  the  principal  products  of  this  area  ? 

wheat  reach  far  down  into  the  ground  and  there  find 
some  moisture.  With  some  crops  the  soil  is  cultivated 
very  frequently. 

These  methods  are  adding  large  areas  to  the  lands 
that  may  be  used  for  producing  foods. 

Future.  More  of  the  waters  coming  from  the  moun- 
tains will  be  utilized  in  irrigating  the  margin  of  the 
Western  Plateaus  (Fig.  133).  Then  more  people  can  be 
accommodated  there  and  more  foods  can  be  raised.  The 
water-power  in  certain  of  the  mountain  valleys  near 
the  margin  of  the  desert  and  in  the  canyons  within  the 
desert  makes  possible  the  generation  of  electricity  for 
light  and  power  in  the  cities  and  towns. 

Mining  in  this  region  will  certainly  continue  to 
develop,  and  with  the  constant  extension  of  railroads 
more  and  more  of  the  mountain  ranges  will  become 
easily  accessible,  and  this  will  make  it  possible  for 
poorer  grades  of  ore  to  be  mined  at  a  profit. 

The  dry  farming  in  eastern  Washington  and  Oregon 
has  not  reached  its  limit.  It  will  undoubtedly  be  in- 
creased, thus  adding  to  the  crop  yield  of  the  region. 

Washington  is  the  gateway  to  Alaska.  With  its  ex- 
cellent harbor  and  shipping  facilities  there  is  promise 
of  great  development  in  the  entire  Puget  Sound  region. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Why  do  more  people  live  in 
the  southern  portion  of  the  plateaus  than  in  the  northern  portion  ? 
2.  What  do  the  native  people  do  there  to  make  a  living  ? 


Fig.  132.   The  city  of  Wenatchee,  Washington,  is  situated  on  the  banks  of 

the  Columbia  River.   The  broad,  river-made  plain  is  used  as  orchard  land. 

The  rainfall  is  under  twenty  inches  a  year,  which  is  much  less  than  the 

fruit  trees  need,  and  therefore  all  the  orchards  are  irrigated 

3.  Why  did  the  ancestors  of  these  native  people  build  their 
homes  in  caves,  on  the  tops  of  mesas,  or  on  the  cliffs  of  the  can- 
yons ?  4.  Why  is  there  so  little  rainfall  in  this  region  ?  5.  How 
does  the  dryness  of  the  area  affect  the  changes  in  temperature 
from  night  to  day  ? 

6.  What  is  the  coldest  time  in  the  twenty-four  hours  ?  Why  ? 
7.  What  has  the  Federal  government  done  to  help  the  farmers 
who  live  in  the  Western  Plateaus  ?  8.  How  was  the  Columbia 
Plateau  made  ?  9.  What  is  meant  by  the  Great  Basin  region  ? 
10.  In  which  plateau  is  the  Grand  Canyon  ? 

11.  What  have  you  ever  seen  that  is  higher  than  the  walls  of 
the  Grand  Canyon  ?  12.  How  was  the  canyon  made  ?  13.  To 
what  natural  regions  do  the  mountains  of  Arizona  and  the  plateau 
of  southern  New  Mexico  belong?    See  map  on  page  122. 

14.  What  great  natural  resources  have  white  men  discovered 
in  the  plateau  region  ?  15.  What  factors  have  controlled  the  loca- 
tion of  the  cities  ?  16.  What  will  help  to  make  this  part  of  the 
country  suitable  for  larger  populations  in  the  years  to  come  2 


RJBr'jl 

Wttr^ft           'jH 

HE*.                                i^F  ^fl 

M 

1  iImL.  ^ 

Fig.  133.   The  great  Roosevelt  Dam  in  Arizona  was  built  by  the  government 

to  store  up  the  waters  of  the  Salt  River  for  irrigation.   The  Salt  River 

Irrigation  Project  is  one  of  the  many  undertaken  by  our  government  to 

water  the  dry  lands  of  the  West  and  make  them  fit  for  farming 


70 


PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  LOWLANDS 


Fig.  134.  This  is  Crater  Lake,  Oregon.  It  occupies  the  huge  hole  which  was 
left  long  ago  when  a  great  volcanic  mountain  collapsed  into  itself.  This 
mountain  was  one  of  a  range  of  volcanoes  which  were  built  up  by  many  out- 
pourings of  hot  lava  long  before  man  came  to  live  on  the  earth.   The  other 

PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  LOWLANDS 

Coming  of  the  pioneers.  In  studying  the  country  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River  we  have  several  times  referred 
to  the  great  rush  to  California  when  gold  was  discovered 
there  in  1848.  The  trails  from  the  Central  Plains  west- 
ward led  the  exploring  parties  through  several  natural 
regions  to  this  westernmost  portion  of  the  United  States. 
See  map  on  pages  2  and  3.  Some  came  in  at  the  south, 
where  the  climate  was  dry  and  warm,  and  some  crossed 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  went  directly  to  the  mining 
districts  in  the  mountains.  Others,  who  followed  the 
Oregon  trail,  came  by  the  Columbia  River  through  the 
Cascade  Mountains  to  the  region  where  Portland  is  now 
situated.  The  life  in  the  mountainous  portion  of  this 
region  developed  most  naturally  from  the  discovery  of 
mineral  wealth.  In  the  lowland  areas  the  occupations 
were  determined  by  the  conditions  of  soil  and  climate. 


mountains  of  the  range  did  not  collapse  and  to-day  they  are  cold,  rugged 
peaks,  covered  with  ice  and  snow  (see  Figs.  147, 150).  The  lava  cliffs  which 
form  the  rim  of  this  lake  are  a  thousand  feet  high,  and  rising  out  of  its 
clear,  blue  waters  is  a  beautiful  little  volcanic  cone  called  Wizard  Island 

Placer  mining.  The  first  mines  were  in  the  sand  and 
gravel  deposits  of  certain  valleys  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
Some  of  the  gold  is  in  the  form  of  pebbles  or  nuggets, 
but  more  is  in  the  form  of  grains  as  fine  as  sand.  Some 
of  it  is  a  gold  dust.  The  stream  deposits  that  contain 
the  gold  must  be  washed  in  order  to  separate  the  gold 
from  the  sand  and  gravel.  This  is  done  by  running  the 
deposits  through  long  boxes.  The  gold  is  heavier  than 
the  sand  and  gravel  and  therefore  sinks  to  the  bottom 


..                E^^         _*-±±.  : 

^v^ 

Sb 

Fig.  135.   These  men  are  at  work  near  Fresno,  California,  stacking  alfalfa 

hay  with  the  help  of  a  derrick.  The  dry  summers  of  the  central  valley  of 

California  are  especially  favorable  to  alfalfa-growing,  and  the  farmers  often 

cut  it  three  or  four  times  a  season.  Explain  the  climate  here 


Fig.  136.    There  are  no  better  dairy  farms  in  the  country  than  those  in  the 

central  valley  of  California.    The  cows  in  this  region  have  green  feed  the 

year  round,  which  is  a  great  advantage  to  dairying.    In  what  ways  do 

the  conditions  for  dairying  here  differ  from  those  of  New  England  ? 

of  the  boxes,  where  it  is  caught  and  held  behind  small 
crossbars.    This  method  is  called  placer  mining. 

Vein  mining.  The  prospectors  realized  that  the  orig- 
inal source  of  the  gold  which  they  found  in  the  gravels 
must  be  somewhere  upstream,  and  they  searched  through 
the  mountains  to  find  the  mineral  veins  which  carried 
the  gold.  Many  of  the  veins  were  discovered,  and  this 
led  to  mining  underground.  Great  shafts  were  sunk 
and  tunnels  driven  (Fig.  103).  Some  of  the  hills  have 
been  honeycombed,  and  the  miners  now  go  thousands 
of  feet  down  into  the  earth  for  the  ores. 


PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  LOWLANDS 


71 


Climate.    The  prevailing 

west  winds  that  come  from 
over  the  Pacific  Ocean  to 
the  northern  portion  of  the 
Pacific  coast  bring  an  abun- 
dance of  moisture,  and  the 
rainfall  is  heavy,  reaching 
100  inches  a  year  on  the 
western  slopes  of  the  moun- 
tains in  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington. Farther  south  the 
rainfall  decreases,  and  in 
southern  California  it  is 
often  very  light.  During  a 
part  of  each  year  the  winds 
of  southern  California  come 
from  over  the  land  and 
bring  little  or  no  rainfall  to 


Fig.  137.    This  man  is  picking  grapes  in  his  vineyard  in  the  valley  of 

California.    These  grapes  will  be  dried  to  make  raisins.    Why  is  the 

valley  of  California  a  favorable  place  for  the  cultivation  of  vineyards  ? 

Where  are  the  other  grape-raising  centers  of  the  United  States  ? 


the  coastal  region.    They  come  from  a  very  dry  region. 

The  winds  that  come  from  over  the  Pacific  Ocean  have 
the  temperature  of  the  air  over  the  water,  and  as  that 
changes  but  little  from  summer  to  winter,  there  are 
not  such  great  ranges  in  temperature  along  the  coast  as 
there  are  farther  inland. 

In  the  lowland  area  the  climate  is  never  very  cold. 
The  rainy  season  is  during  the  winter,  when  the  upper 
air  is  colder ;  thus,  as  the  winds  rise  to  cross  the  moun- 
tain, they  are  more  quickly  chilled  and  forced  to  give 
up  their  moisture.  In  the  high  mountains  the  winters 
are  cold  and  there  are  heavy  snowfalls. 

Agriculture.  In  the  early  days  the  number  of  miners 
increased  rapidly  and  more  food  was  needed.  This  led 
many  people  to  begin  farming  and  fruit-raising  on  the 


rich  soils  in  the  lowland 
belts  between  the  great 
mountain  ranges  (Figs.  135, 
136).  In  southern  Calif  ornia 
the  soils  are  exceedingly 
fertile,  and  with  the  help  of 
irrigation  large  crops  are 
raised.  The  lowlands  as 
they  appear  on  the  map  do 
not  look  extensive  enough 
to  be  as  important  as  they 
are;  but  in  the  valley  of 
California,  shut  away  from 
the  Pacific  Ocean  by  the 
Coast  Ranges,  the  climate 
is  just  right  for  raising 
grain  and  fruit.  In  the 
north,  barley,  rice,  apples, 
pears,  peaches,  and  grapes  are  the  chief  products 
(Fig.  137).  In  southern  California,  plums,  apricots, 
oranges,  lemons,  olives,  figs,  walnuts,  and  almonds  are 
produced  (Fig.  138).  The  abundant  rainfall  on  the 
mountains  furnishes  sufficient  water  for  irrigating  the 
lowlands,  and  in  the  valley  of  California  and  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  state,  irrigation  is  carried  on 
by  the  most  modern  methods. 

Drying  fruits.  Since  the  rainfall  is  light,  especially  in 
the  southern  portion,  fruits  may  be  dried  out  of  doors. 
The  long  days  of  sunshine  are  just  what  is  needed 
to  dry  plums  and  grapes  into  prunes  and  raisins. 

Few  places  in  the  world  have  a  climate  and  soil  so 
well  suited  to  the  raising  and  drying  of  fruits  as  the 
central  and  southern  portions  of  California.  See  Fig.  139. 


Fig.  138.   This  picture  shows  one  of  the  great  groves  of  orange,  lemon,  and 

grapefruit  trees  which  are  cultivated  with  the  help  of  irrigation  in  southern 

California.  These  are  called  citrous  fruits.  How  does  the  climate  of  southern 

California  compare  with  that  of  the  citrous-fruit  area  of  Florida  ? 


Fig.  139.    In  the  valley  of  California,  during  the  rainless  summer  months, 

acres  of  land  are  covered  with  trays  of  fruit  drying  in  the  sun.    The  trays 

in  this  picture  contain  prunes.  Peaches,  pears,  apricots,  raisins,  currants, 

and  berries  are  also  dried  in  this  way.   Explain  the  climate  here 


72 


MAP  STUDIES 


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74 


PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  LOWLANDS 


Fig.  140.  This  is  a  typical  scene  in  the  Pacific  Northwest.  The  square- 
rigged  sailing  vessels  are  lying  at  anchor  in  the  river,  waiting  to  be  loaded 
with  timber  for  foreign  markets.  To  what  ports  will  they  sail  ?  What  con- 
ditions make  the  Pacific  Northwest  the  finest  lumber  district  in  the  world  ? 


The  mature  fish  leave  the  salt  water 
when  they  are  ready  to  spawn,  or 
lay  eggs/  and  start  up  one  of  the 
streams.  The  Columbia  River  and 
its  tributaries  and  the  small  streams 
that  flow  into  Puget  Sound  are 
favorite  waters.  The  eggs  are  de- 
posited in  the  running  water,  and 
the  young  salmon  are  hatched 
there.  Then  they  begin  their  jour- 
ney to  the  sea,  reaching  it  when 
they  are  only  a  few  inches  long. 
They  mature  in  about  four  years. 
By  a  remarkable  instinct  most  of 
them  return  to  the  rivers  of  their 
birth  to  spawn  (Fig.  145). 

Most  salmon  are  taken  in  the 
salt  water,  where  their  flesh  is  in 
Lumbering.  The  forests  in  Oregon  and  Washington  the  best  condition  (Fig.  146).  They 
are  the  most  luxuriant  in  the  United  States.  They  are  are  caught  by  means  of  purse 
made  up  chiefly  of  fir,  cedar,  and  spruce,  and  they  have  seines,  gill  nets,  and  fish  traps,  and 
made  possible  the  production  of  large  quantities  of  a  few  species  by  trolling.  In  the  Co- 
lumber.  In  southwestern  Oregon  there  are  magnificent  lumbia  and  other  large  rivers  the  fish 
forests  of  northern  yellow  pine  (Fig.  142).  Tacoma,  wheel  is  used.  If  nets  are  stretched 
Seattle,  and  Portland  are  lumbering  centers  and  send  completely  across  a  stream,  or  if  too 
lumber  to  the  great  cities  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  On  many  nets  are  placed  in  a  river  and 
Puget  Sound  and  on  the  Columbia  River  vessels  from  kept  there,  the  salmon  in  the  stream 
almost  all  the  countries  of  the  world  may  be  seen  taking  are  soon  killed  off.  The  government 
on  cargoes  of  lumber  (Figs.  140,  141).  has  made  laws  restricting  the  catch- 

The  mills  built  to  take  care  of  this  business  have  such  ing  of  salmon  but  providing  certain 
remarkable  machinery  that  huge  logs 
from  six  to  eight  feet  in  diameter 
and  fifty  feet  long  are  used.  Such 
logs  enter  the  mill,  are  sawed  into 
great  beams  or  into  various  sizes  of 


boards,  and  are  made  ready  to  ship 
without  having  been  touched  by  a 
man's  hand.  In  these  forests  large 
quantities  of  spruce  were  cut  to  build 
aeroplanes  for  use  in  the  World  War. 

On  the  Coast  Ranges  west  of  the 
Puget  Sound  Lowland  and  on  the 
mountains  of  California  there  are  also 
large  supplies  of  timber.  In  California 
the  forests  of  red  wood  have  furnished 
excellent  lumber  for  buildings,  and 
in  that  state  are  the  largest  trees  in 
the  world  (Fig.  143). 

Salmon  fishing.  The  cold  streams 
coming  from  the  snow-fields  and 
glaciers  in  the  Cascade  Mountains 
are  used  by  salmon  for  spawning. 


Hjjj^b 

Hk                   4  jv  ¥  iij^Hnyt  4    Jl^jB 

0&T 

WPZffiiHQtof^  ^^r*^ 

iJu-V  Jji  gJfcL.^ 

my 

\      \        '  'i  M"M|iriy^' 

Fig.  142.    A  northern 

yellow  pine  in  Oregon, 

225  feet  high 


©  Keystone  View  Co. 

Fig.  141.    When  the  logs  which  are  cut  in  the 

forests    of   the   Puget   Sound    country   must    be 

towed  out  into  the  ocean,  the  lumbermen  chain 

them  together  in  great  cigar-shaped  rafts 


rights  for  all 
who  engage  in 
this  industry. 

Oil.  Several  oil  fields  have  been  dis- 
covered in  California  (see  map,  p.  76), 
and  that  state  has  become  one  of  our 
greatest  producers  of  this  very  useful 
fluid  (Fig.  144). 

Some  of  the  oil  comes  from  rocks 
that  extend  beyond  the  shore  under 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  has  led  to  a 
very  interesting  development  of  oil 
wells.  Some  of  them  are  sunk  on  the 
land  near  the  shore ;  others  are  drilled 
beyond  the  shore  line,  and  in  such 
cases  the  derricks  can  be  seen  rising 
out  of  the  water.  A  pipe  is  put 
down  through  the  sea  water  deep 
into  the  ground  by  which  the  oil 
can  be  brought  to  the  surface  just 
as  well  as  if  the  pipe  had  been 
driven  down  on  shore. 


PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  LOWLANDS 


.75 


Coal.  Near  Tacorna  and  at  points  near  Coos  Bay  there 
are  a  number  of  large  coal  mines.  The  coal  is  in  upturned 
and  folded  layers  of  rock,  much  as  it  is  in  the  anthracite 
coal  field  of  eastern  Pennsylvania.  In  this  western  region, 
however,  the  coal  has  not  been  made  so  hard  as  that  in 
the  East,  but  it  is  a  good  grade  of  bituminous  coal. 

Water-power.  A 
second  very  im- 
portant source  of 
power  in  this  region 
is  provided  by  the 
numerous  waterfalls 
and  rapids  which 
are  present  in  most 
of  the  mountain 
streams.  In  many 
places  hydroelec- 
tric plants  have 
been  put  in  and 
all  the  large  cities 
have  an  abundance 
of  electricity. 

Harbors.  A  coast 
bordered  by  young, 
rugged  mountains 
is  certain  to  be 
without  good  har- 
bors unless  the  land  sinks  and  allows  the  sea  waters  to 
enter  the  mouths  of  the  rivers.  Fortunately  the  land  did 
sink  on  our  Pacific  coast,  and  the  salt  waters  came  in 
through  the  Golden  Gate  at  San  Francisco,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  River,  and  at  Puget  Sound.  At  each 
of  these  places  the  mouth  of  a  river  is  drowned  and 
bays  or  estuaries  have  been  formed.  This  has  given  the 
Pacific  coast  deep,  sheltered  waters  suitable  for  harbors. 


Fig.  143.   These  trees  are  the  giant  sequoias  of 

California.   Some  of  them  are  from  25  to  35  feet 

in  diameter  and  several  hundred  feet  in  height. 

Many  are  over  two  thousand  years  old 


Fig.  144.   One  of  the  chief  oil  fields  of  California  is  located  near  Bakersfield, 
at  the  southern  end  of  the  central  valley.    The  California  oil  fields  con- 
tribute about  one  third  of  the  total  production  of  the  country.   Why  is  it 
particularly  fortunate  that  California  has  an  abundant  oil  supply  ? 

The  Pacific  coast  states  are  all  benefiting  by  com- 
mercial relations  with  foreign  countries.  There  is  also 
some  coastwise  trade  and  an  active  business  with 
Alaska.  The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  has  brought 
these  growing  Pacific  coast  ports  into  closer  relations 
with  all  Atlantic  ports. 

Mountain  scenery  as  a  natural  resource.  The  sight  of 
the  beautiful  mountain  panoramas  is  refreshing  to  those 
who  must  stay  in  the  busy  cities  in  the  rush  of  commer- 
cial and  industrial  life.  Some  enjoy  their  vacation  out- 
ings in  the  mountains,  and  many  make  long  expeditions 
through  the  canyons  and  climb  to  the  lofty  summits  of 
the  range.  Camping  among  the  mountains  is  an  inspira- 
tion to  study  and  to  enjoy  nature.  Thousands  of  tour- 
ists visit  the  national  parks  in  this  region  every  year, 
and  many  go  far  into  the  wild  parts  of  the  mountains. 


rtUrtU,  0  regun 

Fig.  145.  This  is  a  Chinook  salmon  jumping  a  waterfall.  Thousands  of  salmon 

run  up  the  Pacific  coast  rivers  every  year,  swimming  against  the  current  and 

jumping  the  falls.    After  spawning  the  salmon  die,  and  some  of  the  dead 

bodies  drift  back  down  the  streams,  furnishing  food  for  other  fish 


Fig.  146.   The  commercial  species  of  salmon  are  Chinook,  sockeye,  silver, 
humpback,  and  dog.   Here  is  a  boatload  of  several  thousand  salmon,  the  re- 
sult of  one  day's  fishing.   These  salmon  will  be  taken  to  the  canneries  and 
put  up  in  tins  for  export.  Where  will  the  canned  salmon  be  sent  ? 


Mn^auuqs. 


MAP  STUDIES 


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78 


PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  LOWLANDS 


Fig.  147.  This  is  part  of  the  city  of  Seattle,  and  in  the  distance,  sixty  miles 

away,  is  Mt.  Rainier.   Seattle  is  situated  on  Puget  Sound,  and  the  summit 

of  Mt.  Rainier  is  14,408  feet  above  sea  level.    Locate  both  on  your  map. 

What  makes  Seattle  an  important  city? 

Location  and  growth  of  cities.  With  the  development 
of  mining,  agriculture,  lumbering,  and  fishing,  and  the 
coming  and  going  of  people  from  foreign  lands,  a  num- 
ber of  large  cosmopolitan  cities  have  grown  up.  The 
chief  seaports  are  shown  on  the  maps  (pp.  73,  76).  They 
have  the  advantages  of  being  inland  and  on  protected 
waters.  Many  of  the  facts  regarding  the  commerce 
are  shown  on  those  maps.  Seattle  (Fig.  147)  and  Tacoma 
have  the  advantage  of  the  deep  water  of  Puget  Sound, 
and  are  both  lumber  centers.  Both  are  fortunate  in 
having  a  supply  of  coal  near  at  hand..  A  canal  at  Seattle 
connects  the  Sound  with  a  fresh-water  lake.  Here  vessels 
are  cleaned  of  barnacles,  for  the  barnacles  cannot  live  in 
fresh  water.  Seattle  is  a  great  outfitting  point  for  people 
going  to  Alaska  and  is  the  port  most  commonly  reached 
on  the  return  from  Alaska.    Most  of  the  supplies  for  that 


territory  pass  through  Seattle.  At  Bellingham  (Washing- 
ton) and  at  Astoria  (Oregon)  there  are  immense  salmon 
canneries.   , 

Portland  is  situated  on  the  Willamette  River  near 
the  Columbia  River.  These  waters  are  navigable  for 
ocean-going  vessels,  and  Portland  is  the  seaport  for 
Oregon  (Fig.  150). 

San  Francisco  is 
very  favorably  sit- 
uated just  within 
the  Golden  Gate. 
It  is  the  commer- 
cial center  and  the 
financial  metrop- 
olis of  the  Pacific 
coast  (Fig.  151). 

The  four  prin- 
cipal fruit-growing 
districts  in  the  val- 
ley of  California 
are  near  Stockton, 
Sacramento,  Fresno, 
and  San  Jos6,  but 
there  are  several 
other  large  fruit- 
growing districts. 
'  In  the  south,  in 
the  lowland  bordering  tbe  coast,  are  Los  Angeles  and 
Pasadena.  Pasadena  is  beautifully  located  near  the  base 
of  the  mountains  (Fig.  149).  Los  Angeles  adjoins  Pasa- 
dena and  extends  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land  to  the  coast. 
It  ranks  as  the  largest  city  in  the  state  of  California. 
These  cities  are  in  a  great  fruit-growing  district.  They 
attract  large  numbers    of  visitors   during  the  winter. 


Fig.  148.  The  state  capitol  of  California  at 
Sacramento  is  an  exceptionally  fine  example 
of  the  domed  type  of  architecture  most  com- 
monly used  for  our  state  and  federal  buildings 


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Fig.  149.  Pasadena  is  located  on  lowlands  that  are  composed  of  sands, 
gravels,  and  silts  washed  out  from  the  mountains  by  streams.  It  is  an 
exceptionally  beautiful  city.  The  streets  are  lined  with  a  great  variety  of 
tropical  trees  such  as  the  eucalyptus  and  palm.   The  rainfall  is  light,  so 


)  Henrj  G.  Peabodj 

the  gardens  must  be  irrigated  and  all  the  trees  and  lawns  watered  frequently. 
Because  the  city  is  situated  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea  the  climate 
is  always  mild,  with  no  extremes  of  heat  or  cold.  Can  you  explain  this  ? 
In  this  view  notice  the  automobile  road  which  zigzags  up  the  mountain 


PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  LOWLANDS 


79 


Fig.  150.  Mt.  Hood,  one  of  the  old  volcanic  mountains  of  the  Cascade  Range, 
towers  like  a  giant  above  the  surrounding  ridges.    It  is  11,234  feet  in 
elevation.    The  city  in  the  foreground  is  Portland,  Oregon,  the  most  im- 
portant city  in  the  state.   How  far  away  from  Portland  is  Mt.  Hood  ? 

Picture  study.  Use  Fig.  151.  1.  How  should  you  describe  the 
land  surface  shown  in  this  view  ? 
2.  Has  the  shore  line  been  elevated  or 
depressed  ?  Give  reasons  for  your  an- 
swer. 3.  To  what  natural  region  does 
this  area  belong  ?  See  map  on  page  76. 
4.  San  Francisco  Bay  is  about  fifty  miles 
long  and  ten  miles  wide.  It  is  connected 
with  the  Pacific  Ocean  only  by  the  nar- 
row strait  of  the  Golden  Gate.  What 
advantage  is  there  in  this  ?  5.  How  is 
the  bay  connected  with  the  valley  of 
California  ?  See  map  on  page  76.  6.  In 
what  ways  is  the  physical  geography 
of  this  area  favorable  to  commercial 
development  ?.  7.  What  are  the  chief 
exports  and  imports  of  San  Francisco  ? 
8.  With  what  countries  does  San  Fran- 
cisco trade  ? 


National  parks.  The  Pacific 
Mountains  and  Lowlands  contain 
several  of  the  most  beautiful 
national  parks  in  the  country. 
Mt.  Rainier  National  Park  sur- 
rounds the  beautiful  peak  of  the 
same  name,  which  is  remark- 
able for  the  twenty-eight  glaciers 
which  descend  its  slopes  (Fig.  156). 
Crater  Lake  National  Park  con- 
tains the  most  extraordinary  crater 
lake  in  the  world  (Fig.  13-4). 
Yosemite  National  Park  is  an 
area  of  deep  valleys,  lofty  peaks, 
and  cascading  waterfalls  (Figs.  152, 
168, 154).  These  and  the  other  na- 
tional parks  of  the  region  appear 
on  the  maps  on  pages  73  and  76. 


Physical  Features 

Sierra  Nevada.  At  the  eastern  base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
there  is  a  great  crack,  or  fissure,  in  the  earth.  When 
the  mountains  were  last  uplifted,  a  slipping  took  place 
along  that,  crack.  The  mountains  undoubtedly  rose  very 
slowly,  perhaps  a  few  inches  at  a  time,  but  they  rose  to 
elevations  of  from  10,000  to  14,000  feet  above  the  sea. 
Standing  on  Mt.  Whitney  (14,501  feet  high)  one  may 
look  down  a  most  wonderful  mountain  slope  into  the 
basin  region  to  the  east  or  view  to  the  north  and  west  a 
panorama  of  lofty  peaks  that  extend  to  the  westward 
until  they  reach  the  valley  of  California. 

When  this  huge  mass  of  land  was  uplifted,  the  rivers, 
supplied  with  plenty  of  water  by  the  moist  winds  from 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  began  their  work  of  cutting  it  down 
(Fig.  154).  Immense  canyons  were  carved  out,  and 
during  the  Ice  Age  great  glaciers  formed  in  the  high 
mountains  and  helped  to  deepen  the  canyons  (Fig.  152). 


n  an-1  Company 

Fig.  161.  This  aeroplane  drawing  of  San  Francisco  and  its  surroundings  shows  the  location  of  the  city  on 
a  hilly  peninsula  south  of  the  Golden  Gate.  Before  gold  was  discovered  in  California,  San  Francisco  was 
only  a  small  town,  but  as  the  prospectors  and  miners  poured  into  the  state  after  1849  it  grew  very  rapidly 
until  to-day  it  is  one  of  the  leading  seaports  of  the  United  States.  How  does  San  Francisco  rank  among 
the  cities  of  the  United  States  ?   See  tables  in  Appendix 


80 


PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  LOWLANDS 


Fig.  152.    Long  ago  Tenaya  Canyon,  in  the  Yosemite  National  Park,  was 

carved  by  a  river.  Then  it  was  widened  and  deepened  by  a  glacier.  To-day 

its  floor  is  covered  with  a  forest  of  evergreens.   On  the  right  is  the  great 

granite  Half  Dome,  rising  nearly  a  mile  above  the  valley  floor 

Cascade  Mountains.  The  Cascade  Mountains,  which 
seem  to  he  a  continuation  northward  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
have  been  greatly  uplifted  by  earth  pressure,  and  here 
also  the  streams  and  glaciers  have  been  at  work  cutting 
into  the  mountain  mass,  deepening  the  canyons,  and 
carrying  the  loose  material  to  lower  levels.  There  are 
beautiful  glacial  lakes  and  superb  waterfalls  in  these 
mountains. 

Volcanoes.  In  places  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  volcanoes 
have  broken  forth.  Shasta  is  a  magnificent  volcanic 
cone.  It  is  so  high  that  the  upper  slopes  are  covered 
with  snow  all  the  year  round,  and  there  are  glaciers 
on  the  summit.  In  the  Cascade  Range  there  are  many 
more  volcanoes  (Fig.  156).  Lassen  Peak  was  active  in 
1916  and  1917. 

Coast  Ranges.  The  Coast  Ranges  are  even  younger 
than  the  Cascades  and 
Sierra  Nevada.  They  are 
not  so  high  as  the  Sierra 
Nevada  or  Cascades,  and 
are  still  groAving.  They 
have  in  them  rock  forma- 
tions which  have  come  up 
out  of  the  ocean  since  the 
glacial  period,  and  this  is 
an  indication  of  extreme 
youth  in  mountains.  They 
have  also  been  dissected 
by  streams  and  by  glaciers. 
On  their  western  edge  the 
waves  are  now  actively  at 
work  cutting  away  the 
rocks,  making  sea  cliffs, 
sea  caves,  and  rock  islands. 


The  Pacific  Ocean  side  of  these  ranges  shows  a  series 
of  terraces  like  gigantic  steps,  rising  to  at  least  1500 
feet  above  the  present  sea  level.  These  are  benches 
made  by  the  waves  when  the  land  was  lower.  Each 
time  the  land  rose,  a  new  bench,  or  terrace,  was  cut. 
The  terraces  prove  that  the  land  was  under  the  sea,  and 
the  kinds  of  sea  shells  found  on  them  show  that  they 
have  been  but  re- 
cently uplifted. 

Since  the  last  up- 
lifting of  the  coast 
the  lands  have  been 
somewhat  depressed , 
which  accounts  for 
the  excellent  har- 
bors which  were  de- 
scribed on  page  75. 

Earthquakes.  The 
young  mountains  in 
this  region  are  still 
growing,  and  occa- 
sionally, as  in  all 
regions  of  young 
mountains,  the  little 
slippings  along  the 
cracks  and  fissures 
in  the  rocks  cause 
earthquakes.  There 
are  certain  cracks  in 
the    Coast    Ranges 


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Fig.  153.  These  jagged  peaks  are  the  Three 
Brothers  in  the  Yosemite  National  Park.  The 
park,  with  its  steep-walled  canyons  and 
cascading  waterfalls,  is  one  of  the  nation's 
beautiful  playgrounds 


Fig.  154.   These  are  the  four  great  waterfalls  in  Yosemite  National  Park. 

From  left  to  right  they  are  Bridal  Veil  Falls,  620  feet ;  Yosemite  Falls 

—  upper,  1430  feet,  lower,  320  feet ;  Vernal  Falls,  320  feet ;  Nevada  Falls, 

594  feet.  Of  what  value  are  these  falls  ? 


where  earthquakes  have  occurred  since  the  white  people 
settled  there.  Volcanoes  are  also  commonly  located  in 
regions  where  the  mountains  are  growing. 

Lowlands.    The  lowlands  of  the  Pacific  coast  region 

have  received  the  wash 
from  the  mountains  on  each 
side.  Sands,  clays,  and 
gravels  and  some  glacial 
materials  have  been  depos- 
ited here,  making  rich  soils 
(Fig.  157). 

Future.  The  natural  re- 
sources are  varied  and 
abundant  and  will  lead  to 
a  greater  prosperity.  With 
the  development  of  the 
nations  in  eastern  Asia 
and  the  steadily  increasing 
trade  with  Australia  and 
New  Zealand  our  Pacific 
coast  states  are  sure  to  con- 
tinue their  rapid  growth. 


PACIFIC  MOUNTAINS  AND  LOWLANDS 


81 


About  fifty  years  ago  Japan  began  to  use  modern 
industrial  methods  and  has  since  developed  rapidly  in 
that  direction,  until  now  it  is  a  great  world  power. 
China  is  just  entering  upon  a  period  of  internal  develop- 
ment. Many  of  the  valuable  natural  resources  of  that 
country  bave  as  yet  teen  little  used.  The  Chinese  have 
lived  chiefly  as  an  agricultural  people.  They  have 
great  resources  of  coal,  oil,  and  iron  and  many  other 
metals.  These  resources  are  now  being  used  and  fac- 
tories have  been  built  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton, 
silk,  flour,  iron  and  steel,  and  other  products.  Indus- 
trial development  will  undoubtedly  lead  to  increased 
commercial  intercourse  with  the  Pacific  states. 

Docking  facilities  on  the  Pacific  coast  must  be 
enlarged.  The  history  there  will  be  somewhat  like  the 
history  of  the  Atlantic  seaports,  where  it  has  been 
difficult  to  build  enough  wharves   to  meet  the  ever- 


Fig.  155.  This  is  the  beautiful  canyon  of  the  Columbia  River.  The  river  rises 
east  of  the  Pacific  Mountains  and  is  the  only  one  which  cuts  its  way  across 
them  to  the  ocean.  Study  the  map  on  pages  2  and  3  and  explain  the  impor- 
tance of  the  Columbia  in  the  westward  expansion  of  the  American  people 

increasing  demand.  With  more  foreign  trade  will  come 
the  necessity  of  more  extensive  railroad  service  for 
transporting  imports  and  exports.  A  larger  population 
will  be  needed  to  care  for  this  business  and  to  supply 
food  for  all  who  live  in  the  region.  Much  of  this 
growth  will  certainly  take  place  in  the  next  half-century. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  first  led  exploring 
parties  into  the  Pacific  Mountains  ?  2.  By  what  routes  did  the 
early  explorers  reach  California  ?  3.  What  is  meant  by  "  placer 
mining"?  4.  Tell  briefly  the  story  of  a  gold  nugget  from  the 
time  it  was  in  a  mineral  vein  until  it  was  found  by  a  prospector. 
5.  What  sources  of  power  are  there  within  this  region?  6.  Where 
did  the  soils  on  the  lowlands  come  from  ?  7.  Why  is  so  much 
fruit  dried  in  California  ? 

8.  Describe  briefly  the  life  of  the  salmon.  9.  What  conditions 
are  favorable  to  the  development  of  lumbering  on  a  large  scale 


Fig.  156.   This  view  of  Mt.  Rainier  from  Mirror  Lake  shows  its  rugged 

slopes  covered  with  ice  and  snow.   It  has  more  glaciers  than  any  other 

peak  in  the  United  States.    Many  of  them  are  from  four  to  six  miles  long, 

and  they  extend  in  all  directions  from  the  summit  to  the  base 

in  Oregon  and  Washington  ?  10.  Name  the  chief  seaport's  in  this 
region.  11.  What  different  mountain  ranges  are  included  in  this 
region  ? 

12.  What  grains  are  raised  in  the  valley  of  California? 
13.  What  fruits  are  raised  in  California  ?  14.  What  is  the  explana- 
tion of  the  formation  of  Crater  Lake  ?  15.  Where  should  you  go 
in  this  part  of  the  United  States  to  see  a  glacier  ?  16.  Explain  the 
presence  of  Puget  Sound  and  San  Francisco  Bay  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  17.  What  signs  are  there  that  the  mountains  of  this  region 
are  still  growing  ? 

18.  What  city  on  the  Willamette  River  near  the  Columbia 
may  be  called  a  seaport  ?  19.  With  what  countries  is  most  of 
the  trade  from  Seattle  and  Tacoma  ?  20.  What  are  the  chief 
imports  from  China  and  Japan  to  this  country  ?  21.  Explain  the 
presence  of  forests  in  the  mountains  of  the  Pacific  coast  states. 


Fig.  157.  Looking  out  over  the  gently  rolling  lowland  of  the  Willamette 
River  it  seems  as  if  the  valley  were  one  great  orchard.  Rows  of  apple, 
pear,  prune,  and  peach  trees  alternate  with  acres  of  strawberry  plants  and 
berry  bushes.  Why  is  the  Willamette  Valley  so  favorable  for  fruit-raising? 


82 


COMPARATIVE  MAP  STUDIES 


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POSSESSIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


83 


Fig.  158.  Some  years  ago  the  United  States  government  introduced  rein- 
deer from  Lapland  into  Alaska.  Many  of  the  Eskimos  of  Alaska  have  now 
learned  to  care  for  reindeer  as  farmers  care  for  cattle.  The  Eskimos  in  this 
view  live  at  Cape  Prince  of  Wales.   They  have  harnessed  their  reindeer  to 


POSSESSIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

ALASKA 

An  investment.  In  1867  we  purchased  Alaska  from 
Russia  for  $7,200,000.  Many  people  thought  we  paid  too 
high  a  price.  Since  then  we  have  taken  from  Alaska 
over  1300,000,000  worth  of  gold,  more  than  $6,000,000 
worth  of  silver,  many  million  dollars'  worth  of  copper, 
and  some  tin.  Billions  of  tons  of  hard  and  soft  coal  have 
been  discovered  there.  We  are  now  taking  millions  of 
dollars'  worth  of  fish  from  the  Alaskan  waters  each  year, 
most  of  which  are  salmon. 

In  southeastern  Alaska  there  are  large  forests,  wonder- 
ful waterfalls,  and  such  beautiful  scenery  that  thousands 
of  people  take  the  boat  trip  to  Alaska 
just  to  see  the  mountains,  the  long 
fiords,  and  the  glaciers. 

Home  work.  In  Bancroft's  "  History  of 
the  Pacific  States,"  or  elsewhere,  read  about 
Bering's  discovery  of  Alaska. 

Climate.  The  winds  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean  bring  an  abundance  of  mois- 
ture to  the  coastal  region  of  southern 
Alaska.  See  map  on  page  124.  They 
blow  over  waters  of  the  ocean  that 
have  been  warmed  by  the  Japan  cur- 
rent, and  they  therefore  keep  the 
Pacific  coastal  region  from  ever  being 
extremely  cold. 

During  the  summer  season  a  tem- 
perature of  95  degrees  in  the  shade  is 
sometimes  reached  in  the  interior  of 
Alaska  and  even  as  far  north  as  the 
arctic  circle,  and  some  prefer  to  work  at  night  rather  than 
during  the  day,  because  it  is  cooler  when  the  sun  is  low. 
The  winter  temperature  in  the  interior  is  very  low,  —  so 


- 

7 

*       -  **  7  ' 

k2 

MP 

&M$^mBKEL  -^SsfaJKcfe 

t> 

H - 1  LMsi! 

Fig.  159.  This  is  a  view  of  Chilkoot  Pass  during 
the  Klondike  rush  for  gold.  With  their  outfits  on 
their  backs  the  gold-seekers  formed  a  long  line 
here,  pulling  themselves  up  over  the  mountain 
by  means  of  a  long  wire  cable 


sleds  and  are  hauling  reindeer  meat  to  market  at  Nome.  How  many  miles 
is  it  from  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  to  Nome  ?  What  will  these  Eskimos  buy  at 
Nome  in  exchange  for  their  meat  ?  Why  do  the  Eskimos  keep  reindeer 
instead  of  cattle  ?   How  many  different  uses  of  the  reindeer  can  you  name  ? 

low  that  the  mercury  freezes  in  the  thermometers.  In 
the  Far  North  in  summer  it  is  daylight  throughout  the 
twenty-four  hours.  The  sun  is  highest  at  noon,  when  it 
is  in  the  south,  and  lowest  at  midnight,  when  it  is  in 
the  north.  During  the  winter  the  days  in  Alaska  are 
short,  and  in  places  the  sun  does  not  rise  above  the 
horizon  for  many  weeks. 

Effects  of  climate.  Many  think  that  Alaska  is  so  cold 
a  country  that  no  one  but  Eskimos  would  want  to  live 
there,  and  that  the  growing  season  is  too  short  to  raise 
even  vegetables.  That  is  not  so.  To-day  there  is  a  popu- 
lation of  about  55,000  in  this  far  northern  territory. 
Near  each  of  the  larger  settlements  there  are  vegetable 
gardens,  and  nearly  every  prospector  has  a  little  garden 
patch  beside  his  cabin.  Timothy  hay  and  oats  are  raised 
in  a  few  places.  Strawberries  will 
ripen.  Cattle  graze  all  winter  long 
on  certain  of  the  islands  near  the 
Alaskan  Peninsula,  and  there  are 
many  Pacific  coast  harbors  that  are 
free  from  ice  all  the  year. 

People.  When  the  report  was  circu- 
lated that  gold  had  been  discovered 
in  Alaska,  miners  and  prospectors 
from  almost  all  parts  of  the  world 
rushed  to  this  new  country  in  the 
hope  of  discovering  a  rich  deposit  of 
gold-bearing  gravels  (Fig.  159).  The 
miners  make  up  most  of  the  popu- 
lation to-day. 

Along  the  Pacific  coast  there  are 
several  Indian  tribes.  They  are  in- 
dustrious and  kindly.  Many  of  them 
work  in  the  canneries,  some  in  the 
mines,  and  others  in  the  forests,  where  lumbering  is 
carried  on.  In  the  interior  of  the  country  small  Indian 
settlements  appear  along  the  banks  of  the  Yukon. 


I  Ginn  and  Company 


ALASKA 


85 


Fig.  160.   These  are  the  rugged  coastal  mountains  along  the  Alaskan  shore. 

The  sharp  peak  in  the  middle  distance  is  Mt.  St.  Elias.   Its  summit  is 

18,000  feet  above  sea  level.    To  the  left  of  it  is  the  great  Malaspina  Glacier, 

which  extends  from  the  foot  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea 

At  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  which  is  the  nearest  point 
in  North  America  to  Asia,  and  from  there  northward 
along  the  coast  as  far  as  Point  Barrow,  there  are  Eskimo 
settlements  (Figs.  158,  162). 

Government.  The  people  of  Alaska  elect  delegates  to 
Congress  and  have  almost  complete  control  of  local 
affairs.  Since  Alaska  is  a  territory,  the  governor  is 
appointed  by  the  president  of  the  United  States. 

Problems  and  map  studies.  1.  What  are  the  chief  mineral  re- 
sources of  Alaska  ?  2.  Name  three  important  products  shipped 
from  Alaska  to  the  United  States.  3.  What  makes  the  coastal 
region  of  Alaska  so  favorable  to  the  salmon  ?  4.  What  are  the 
chief  articles  shipped  to  Alaska  ? 

5.  Why  are  there  not  more  people  engaged  in  farming  there  ? 
6.  What  are  the  chief  cities  of  Alaska?  7.  What  is  the  most  impor- 
tant inland  city  ?  8.  What  city  is  the  capital  of  Alaska?  the  metrop- 
olis ?   See  Fig.  163.    9.  What  is  the  largest  river  ? 

10.  Name  the  northernmost  cape.  11.  Explain  the  fiords  and 
islands  along  the  coast  of  Alaska.  12.  What  explanation  can 
you    suggest   for   earthquakes? 

13.  Find  the  place  where  the 
sealskins  come  from.  Study 
Fig.  164.  14.  Who  discovered 
Alaska  ?  See  Appendix,  Plate  A. 

15.  What  bodies  of  water  have 
been  named  in  honor  of  him  ? 

16.  How  much  did  we  pay  for 
Alaska?  17.  Why  should  it  be 
very  warm  in  the  valley  of  the 
Yukon  during  summer  ? 

18.  What  ocean  current  helps 
to  keep  the  coast  of  Alaska 
warm  ?  19.  Explain  the  heavy 
snowfall  on  the  coast  ranges 
where  the  glaciers  are  formed. 
20.  Why  is  there  less  rainfall 
in   the   interior  of  Alaska  than  there   is   along   the   seacoast  ? 

21.  Where  do  the  Eskimos  live  ?  22.  Of  what  value  to  the 
Eskimos  are  the  reindeer  ?  23.  How  do  people  travel"  in  the 
Yukon  valley  in  winter  ?  24.  Plan  three  sight-seeing  trips  in 
Alaska  and  describe  the  things  you  would  see  on  each  one  of  them. 


Fig.  162.  This  Eskimo  is  paddling  his  kyak,  which  he  has  made  by  covering 
a  framework  of  bones  with  skins  tightly  sewed  together.  He  wears  a  sort 
of  raincoat,  which,  when  tied  down  over  the  opening  in  the  boat,  makes  it 
water  tight.   In  this  rig  he  can  ride  the  roughest  waves  with  perfect  safety 


Fig.  161.   Perry  Island,  one  of  the  volcanic  mountains  of  the  Aleutian  chain, 
rose  suddenly  from  the  sea,  and  when  it  was  first  discovered,  steam  was  escap- 
ing from  every  crack  and  crevice.   Later  explosions  blew  it  to  pieces,  and 
to-day  it  cannot  be  seen.   Locate  the  Aleutian  Islands  on  your  map 

Natural  Regions 

The  Pacific  coastal  region.  Bordering  the  coast  there 
are  magnificent  high  mountains.  They  are  a  continu- 
ation northward  of  the  mountains  in  our  Pacific  coast 
states,  and  extend  through  British  Columbia  into  Alaska 
and  then  follow  the  coast  through  the  Aleutian  Islands. 
These  islands  are  the  peaks  of  a  mountain  range  which 
extends  nearly  to  Asia  (Fig.  161). 

The  St.  Elias  Range,  as  seen  from  a  vessel  coasting 
along  the  Alaskan  shore,  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
sights  in  the  world  (Fig.  160). 

The  Coast  Ranges  are  young  and  growing  mountains. 
Earthquakes  are  common  in  this  belt,  and  there  are 
many  active  volcanoes.  There  is  one  volcanic  region 
which  has  been  appropriately  called  "  the  valley  of  ten 
thousand  smokes."  This  region  has  been  set  aside  by 
Congress  as  the  Katmai  National  Monument. 

This  coastal  region  has  a 
number  of  excellent  harbors, 
and  in  the  southeastern  part 
of  Alaska  there  is  a  beauti- 
ful inland  passageway  shel- 
tered from  the  storms  of 
the  Pacific  by  a  series  of 
large  islands.  Juneau,  the 
capital  of  Alaska,  is  situated 
near  the  northern  end  of 
this  inland  passage. 

Mining  is  the  chief  oc- 
cupation in  southeastern 
Alaska,  although  lumbering 
and  the  canning  of  salmon  are  important.  Whaling 
stations  have  also  been  established  here,  and  there  are  i 
salmon,  halibut,  herring,  and  a  few  cod  fisheries,  which 
provide  a  living  for  many  of  the  people. 


86 


ALASKA 


Fig.  163.   Nome,  on  the  Seward  Peninsula,  was  first  settled  by  men  who 

found  gold  in  the  beach  sands.   To-day  most  [of  the  gold  has  been  washed 

out,  and  the  mining  is  farther  inland.   Nome  has  no  harbor,  and  vessels 

must  anchor  far  offshore.   Why  are  there  no  trees  here  ? 

Farther  west,  in  the  Prince  William  Sound  district, 
there  are  other  mining  centers.  Large  quantities  of 
copper  have  been  discovered  on  the  islands  in  this  sound. 

Cordova  is  the  terminus  of  a  railroad  which  follows 
the  Copper  River  to  an  important  mining  district. 

Seward  is  now  the  terminus  of  a  government  railroad 
which  is  planned  to  connect  this  port  with  Fairbanks,  the 
largest  city  of  the  interior.  The  railroad  will  pass  near 
one  of  the  great  coal  fields,  and  a  branch  line  will  go  to 
the  mines.  When  this  road  is  completed,  supplies  for  the 
miners  can  be  quickly  taken  to  the  great  gold-mining 
camps  of  the  interior.  It  will  reduce  the  cost  of  living 
in  that  part  of  the  country,  and  will  greatly  help  the 
development  of  Alaska.    See  map  on  page  84. 

Home  work.  On  an  outline  map  of  Alaska  locate  Juneau, 
Skagway,  Sitka,  Cordova,  Valdez,  Seward,  Eagle,  Fairbanks,  and 
Nome.    Print  in  the  names. 


like  those  on  the  Mississippi  River,  come  from  St.  Michael 
upstream  as  far  as  Dawson  (Fig.  166).  Some  go  up  the 
Tanana  to  a  point  near  Fairbanks.  When  winter  comes, 
the  river  freezes  over;  but  it  continues  to  be  the  high- 
way of  travel,  for  during  that  season  dog  sleds  are  used, 
and  with  the  help  of  the  dogs  there  is  a  regular  winter 
delivery  of  United  States  mail  through  this  vast  land. 

Gold  has  been  found  in  the  stream  gravels  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Yukon  and 
Tanana  rivers  and 
in  almost  all  of 
their  tributaries. 

The  plateau  is 
a  region  of  light 
rainfall.  Grasses, 
mosses,  and  many 
flowers  grow  on 
the  upland  areas, 
and  trees  border 
the  main  stream 
courses.  Most  of 
the  flowers  have 
short  stems ;  in 
places  there  are 
millions  and  mil- 
lions of  blossoms. 
In  the  interior  of  Alaska  the  ground  thaws  out  to  a  depth 
of  about  eighteen  inches  during  the  summer  season. 
Below  that  it  remains  frozen  year  after  year. 

Endicott  Range.    North  of  the  Yukon  Plateau,  and 


Fig.  165.   This  man  is  starting  out  alone  to  pros- 
pect for  gold  in  Alaska.    He  has  with  him  his 
tools,  food,  bedding,  gun,  and  fishlines.  Why  has 
he  a  net  over  his  face  ? 


Yukon  Plateau. 


extending  from  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Rocky 
The  next  natural  region  within  the     Mountains  to  Bering  Strait,  is  a  range  of  mountains 


Alaskan  territory  is  a  broad  upland  through  which  the 
Yukon  River  flows  to  Bering  Sea.  This  river  rises  in 
Canadian  territory.  It  is  over  2000  miles  long,  and  about 
1500  miles  of  its  course  is  in  Alaska. 

The  chief  highway  of  travel  in  the  interior  of  Alaska 
is  the  Yukon  River.   During  the  summer  large  steamers, 


Fig.  164.   Far  off  in  Bering  Sea,  west  of  Alaska,  there  are  a  few  islands  which  the  fur  seals  use  as 
their  summer  home.   This  particular  place  is  known  as  Kitovi  Rookery,  St.  Paul  Island.  Where 

do  the  fur  seals  spend  their  winters  ? 


that  have  been  but  little  visited  by  white  men.  The 
mountains  are  known  to  have  rugged  peaks  with  snow- 
fields  and  glaciers.  No  one  lives  there,  and  as  yet  little 
prospecting  has  been  done  in  that  part  of  Alaska. 

Arctic  Coastal  Plain.  Still  farther  north,  extending 
from  the  foothills  of  the  Endicott  Range  to  the  ocean,  is  a 
gently  sloping  lowland  which  in  form 
is  much  like  the  Coastal  Plain  east  of 
the  Appalachian  Highlands  or  border- 
ing the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Here  the 
rainfall  is  scanty  and  the  vegetation  is 
chiefly  moss  and  grasses.  The  ground 
is  frozen  most  of  the  year  and  thaws 
only  a  few  inches  at  the  surface  dur- 
ing the  summer  season.  Such  a  place 
is  called  a  tundra.  See  map  opposite 
page  124.  The  only  inhabitants  of 
this  region  are  a  few  Eskimos  who 
live  near  Point  Barrow,  about  300 
miles  north  of  the  arctic  circle. 


HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS 


87 


Fig.  166.    This  is  one  of  the  Yukon  River  boats  which  bring  supplies  into 
the  interior  of  Alaska  every  spring  after  the  ice  melts.  The  boats  are  stern- 
wheelers,  and  so  the  freight  barges  have  to  be  tied  to  the  prow  and  pushed. 
What  supplies  do  the  people  in  Alaska  need  ?  Why  ? 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS 

Physical  features.  The  Hawaiian  Islands  are  volcanic 
peaks  which  have  come  up  from  the  ocean  bed.  There 
are  eight  principal  islands  and  many  smaller  ones,  hav- 
ing a  combined  area  less  than  that  of  the  state  of  New 
Jersey.  On  the  island  of  Hawaii,  which  is  the  largest  in 
the  group,  the  mountains  have  risen  to  a  height  of  over 
14,000  feet.  Mauna  Loa  and  Mauna  Kea  are  the  two 
highest  of  these  volcanoes.  On  the  slope  of  Mauna  Loa 
is  the  tremendous  crater  of  Kilauea  (Fig.  169).  The 
summit  of  Mauna  Loa  and  the  crater  of  Kilauea  are 
national  parks. 

Climate.  Since  these  mountain  peaks  rose  in  the  torrid 
zone,  in  the  midst  of  a  great  ocean,  they  have  a  warm 
climate  with  but  a  slight  change  in  temperature  from 
summer  to  winter.  The  winds  are  the  northeast  trades, 
and  they  bring  plenty  of  rainfall  to  the  windward  side 
of  the  mountains.  The  precipitation  reaches  75  inches 
a  year  on  that  side,  but  on  the  southwest,  or  leeward, 
side  the  annual  rainfall  is  less  than 
25  inches.  One  side  of  an  island  is 
therefore  well  wooded,  while  the  other 
side  is  a  semidesert. 

The  people  and  their  occupations. 
The  population  of  these  islands  is  about 
200,000.  The  native  Hawaiians  be- 
long to  the  brown  race.  They  are  an 
intelligent  people  but  have  been  de- 
creasing in  numbers.  White  people 
have  invested  money  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plantations,  and  a  great 
many  people  from  Japan,  China,  and 


the  Philippines  have  gone  to  the  islands  to  work.  Sugar 
cane  is  the  chief  crop.  Pineapples,  coffee,  rice,  bananas, 
tobacco,  and  citrous  fruits  are  also  raised  (Fig.  167). 

The  location  of  these  islands  is  fortunate,  for  the  ocean 
routes  from  our  Pacific  coast  ports  to  New  Zealand, 
Australia,  the  Philippines,  China,  and  Japan  naturally 
pass  near  the  Hawaiian  group.  They  are  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  at  the  "  cross-roads  of  the  Pacific."  They 
are  used  as  a  coaling  station,  and  large  reserves  of  coal 
are  held  there  for  the  United  States  Navy.  Vessels  may 
put  in  at  these 
islands  to  make 
repairs. 

Cities.  Honolu- 
lu, on  the  island 
of  Oahu,  is  the 
capital  and  larg- 
est city.  It  has  a 
good  harbor  and 
is  the  chief  port 
of  the  territory 
(Fig.  168).  The 
next  largest  city 
is  Hilo,  on  the 
island  of  Hawaii. 

Government.  In  1893  the  white  people  took  control  of 
the  government  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  in  1898 
offered  them  to  the  United  States.  These  islands  now 
constitute  one  of  our  territories. 

Problems  and  map  studies.  Use  map  on  page  84.  1.  Where  are 
the  Hawaiian  Islands?  2.  Why  is  the  climate  of  the  islands  so 
mild  ?  3.  What  winds  bring  rain  to  the  mountains  ?  4.  How  were 
the  islands  made  ?  Give  proofs.  5.  What  are  the  chief  imports  ? 
6.  What  are  the  chief  exports  ? 

7.  Why  are  these  islands  spoken  of  as  at  the  "  cross-roads 
of  the  Pacific "  ?  See  Appendix,  Plate  B.  8.  Plan  a  trip  from 
your  home  to  Honolulu.  9.  How  should  you  reach  your  port  of 
departure  ?  10.  How  long  should  you  be  on  the  ocean  ?  11.  In 
what  occupations  should  you  expect  to  find  the  Hawaiians  en- 
gaged ?    12.  What  places  of  interest  should  you  wish  to  visit  ? 


///'//' , 

■■HMHjffi|ttgj&gggMJ 

Ijfl 

D  E.  M.  Newman 


Fig.  167.  The  finest  pineapples  in  the  world  are 

grown  on  the  Hawaiian  plantations.    Thousands 

of  them  are  canned  and  sent  to  the  United  States. 

What  other  products  do  the  Hawaiians  raise  ? 


PBBBIP 

Hfl| 

H^^HI 

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mm  ^UtUB/E/LW/KSmmum^ 

CT&  '■     *v.  -.    ;  *ds "  i  ■ 

Ik-idflfete    _ 

"  WtTMiVi  i",  :  i»  .     _'i  .— 

Fig.  168.   Honolulu,  the  capital  of  Hawaii,  has  a  safe,  deep  harbor  where  the  largest  ocean-going 

vessels  can  anchor.   It  is  an  important  port  of  call  for  ships  engaged  in  trans-Pacific  trade.   From 

what  countries  do  these  ships  come  ?  What  do  they  bring  to  Honolulu  ?   What  do  they  carry  away  ? 

Why  are  the  Hawaiian  Islands  such  valuable  possessions  of  the  United  States  ? 


) 


88 


PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE 


Never  before  in  the  history  of  the  world  has  man 
attempted  a  task  so  large  or  so  difficult  as  the  construc- 
tion of  this  canal.    There  were  three  chief  difficulties: 

(1)  a  range  of  hills  which  separates  the  two  oceans; 

(2)  great  seasonal  floods  in  the  Chagres  River ;  (3)  tropical 
diseases.  The  line  of  hills  has  been  pierced  by  the 
Gaillard  Cut,  which  is  250  feet  deep  (Fig.  171).  To  con- 
trol the  Chagres  River  the  Gatun  Dam  was  constructed, 
which  has  caused  the  formation  of  Gatun  Lake,  the 
largest   artificial   lake   in   the   world    (Fig.  172).    The 


Fig.  169.   This  is  a  photograph  of  a  model  of  Kilauea,  the  active  crater  on 

the  eastern  slope  of  Mauna  Loa.  The  circular  pit  in  the  foreground  contains 

a  lake  of  boiling  lava.   Surrounding  it  is  the  great  floor  of  hardened  lava, 

built  up  by  many  outpourings  of  hot  liquid  rock 

PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE 

Ever  since  1513,  when  Balboa  climbed  to  the  top  of  a 
hill  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  looked  off  over  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  men  have  talked  of  a  water  route  through 
this  narrow  neck  of  land.  France  was  the  first  country 
to  attempt  the  construction  of  such  a  canal,  and  in  1880 
Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  the  engineer  who  built  the  Suez 
Canal,  began  the  work.  This  project  failed  because  those 
in  charge  were  unable  to  prevent  the  spread  of  tropical 
diseases  among  the  workmen. 

In  1904  the  United  States  acquired  from  the  republic 
of  Panama  a  narrow  zone  through  the  Isthmus  (Fig.  172). 
Our  purpose  in  securing  this  zone  was  to  construct  a  canal 
for  large  ships  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


'J  Publishers'  Photo  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  170.  These  are  the  Gatun  Locks  of  the  Panama  Canal.   They  are  three 

great  water  steps  by  which  ships  are  lifted  from  the  level  of  the  Caribbean 

Sea  to  Gatun  Lake.  The  locks  are  large  enough  for  the  largest  vessels  afloat. 

At  the  left  is  one  of  the  electric  locomotives  used  for  towing 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service,  luc. 

Fig.  171.  This  great  steamship  is  being  towed  through  the  Gaillard  Cut. 
Across  the  canal  is  Gold  Hill,  which  has  caused  the  blocking  of  the  canal 
several  times  by  slides  from  its  slopes.  The  Gaillard  Cut  was  made  through 
the  mountainous  backbone  of  the  Isthmus,  and  was  a  very  hard  problem 
for  the  engineers  who  constructed  the  canal 

problem  of  fighting  tropical  diseases  was  very  difficult. 
Forests  and  underbrush  were  cleared  away,  oil  was  spread 
upon  the  waters  of  the  marshes  and  swamps  to  prevent 
mosquitoes  from  breeding,  sanitary  conditions  were 
greatly  improved,  and  every  care  was  taken  to  prevent 
the  spread  of  any  contagious  diseases  which  appeared 
among  the  workmen. 

About  260,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material  were 
handled  in  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal.  That 
amount  of  material  would  build  a  wall  around  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  60  feet  thick  and  a  little  over  500  feet 
high.  If  the  material  could  be  piled  up  around  the  earth 
at  the  equator,  it  would  make  a  solid  wall  six  feet  thick 
and  about  nine  feet  high. 

The  level  of  Gatun  Lake,  through  which  the  canal 
route  passes,  is  about  85  feet  above  the  sea.  That  neces- 
sitated a  series  of  locks  near  each  end  of  the  canal.  With 
the  help  of  electric  motors  at  these  locks  a  vessel  may 
now  pass  from  one  ocean  to  the  other  in  about  ten  hours 
(Fig.  170).  The  route  of  the  canal  through  the  lake  is 
marked  by  buoys  that  are  brightly  lighted  at  night. 

Colon,  the  Atlantic  terminal,  is  a  supply  station.  Here 
ships  can  obtain  almost  anything  they  need.  Storage 
bins  for  coal,  machine  shops,  bakeries,  and  ice  plants 
have  been  established  at  this  terminal. 


PANAMA  CANAL  ZONE 


89 


The  Pacific  terminal  of  the 
canal  is  Balboa.  It  is  fitted  up 
as  a  repair  station.  With  huge 
machine  shops  and  modern  dry 
docks,  Balboa  stands  ready  to 
receive  any  ship  that  needs  re- 
pairing after  its  trip  through  the 
canal. 

By  means  of  the  canal  the 
Pacific  coast  ports  of  North 
America  and  South  America  may 
easily  be  reached  from  all  Atlantic 
seaports.  The  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal  shortened  the 
water  route  from  New  York  to 
San  Francisco  by  8000  miles  and 
made  all  of  our  island  possessions 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean  more  valu- 
able. The  United  States  govern- 
ment has  fortified  the  canal,  but 
it  is  open  for  the  use  of  vessels 
of  all  nations. 

The  canal  is  also  of  great 
advantage  to  the  countries  of 
western  Europe,  shortening  the 
distance  between  their  Atlantic 
ports  and  the  Pacific  ports  of 
North  and  South  America  by 
thousands  of  miles. 

Home  work.  1.  Make  a  diagram 
showing  the  length  of  the  canal,  the 
height  of  Gatun  Lake,  the  location 
of  the  locks  at  each  end,  and  the 
location  of  Colon  and  of  Panama. 
2.  Which  end  of  the  canal  is  farther 
west  ?  3.  Find  out  how  electric  motors 
help  vessels  through  the  canal. 


CARIBBEAN    SEA 


SCALE.      CF     MILl^ 


©  liinn  anil  Company 

Fig.  172.  This  is  a  view  of  the  Panama  Canal  Zone,  showing  the  mountainous  country  through  which  the 
canal  was  cut.  The  Canal  Zone  (shown  by  the  darker  shading)  is  10  miles  wide  and  50  miles  long  from 
deep  water  at  Colon  to  deep  water  in  the  Gulf  of  Panama.  The  narrowest  width  of  the  canal  is  300  feet, 
and  its  shallowest  depth  is  41  feet.   The  highest  reach  of  its  water  surface,  from  the  Gatun  Locks  to  the 

Pedro  Miguel  Locks,  is  8S  feet  above  sea  level 


E.  M.  Newman 


Fig.  173.   This  is  the  city  of  Panama,  near 
is  that  the  Pacific  end 


the  Pacific  end  of  the  canal.   Can  you  explain  how  it 
is  the  eastern  end  of  the  canal  ? 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  About 
how  long  is  the  Panama  Canal  ?  2.  How  wide 
is  the  Canal  Zone  ?  3.  How  was  the  Gatun 
Lake  formed  ? 

4.  Of  what  advantage  is  the  lake  ?  5.  How 
is  the  canal  route  through  the  lake  marked  ? 
6.  How  high  do  vessels  rise  above  sea  level 
in  crossing  the  Isthmus? 

7.  How  long  does  it  take  for  vessels  to 
pass  from  ocean  to  ocean  through  the  canal  ? 
8.  What  difficulties  had  to  be  overcome  in 
building  the  canal  ? 

9.  What  was  done  to  prevent  the  spread- 
ing of  tropical  diseases  ?  10.  What  South 
American  countries  are  most  benefited  by 
the  canal?  11.  How  did  the  opening  of 
the  canal  increase  the  value  of  our  Pacific 
islands  ?    12.  What  did  it  do  for  Europe  ? 


90 


PORTO  RICO 


(&  £.  M.  .Newman 

Fig.  174.   This  motor  truck,  loaded  with  Porto  Rican  sugar  cane,  is  bound 

for  the  sugar  mill.  The  sugar  used  to  be  hauled  to  the  mills  in  oxcarts  in 

Porto  Rico  and  Cuba,  but  gradually  motor  trucks  are  taking  their  places. 

Why  are  motor  trucks  better  for  this  purpose  ? 

PORTO  RICO 

Porto  Rico  is  in  the  torrid  zone  and  is  one  of  the  four 
largest  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  In  many  ways  it  is 
a  delightful  place  to  live  in,  and  certainly  a  most  attrac- 
tive island  to  visit.  The  central  portion  is  mountainous, 
and  about  the  margin  are  the  lowlands,  which  have 
been  divided  into  farms.  Many  of  the  lower  slopes  of 
the  mountains  are  cultivated. 

About  three  fifths  of  the  people  are  white  and  the 
other  two  fifths  are  negroes  or  people  with  mixed  blood 
(Fig.  177)._ 

Porto  Rico  is  not  quite  as  large  as  the  state  of  Connec- 
ticut ;  it  has  a  population  of  over  a  million.  The  island 
was  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Spain  in  1898.  At 
that  time  the  great  mass  of  the  people  were  uneducated. 


(...^MIIMMMMMIV     -«b<JVWIkMEII^MBBft 

i 

.• ;  ■  .                   '■<• 

*^w^^^~                     ."^5 

iCJ  E.  M.  Newman 

Fig.  175.   Many  of  the  broad,  rich  valleys  of  Porto  Rico  are  used  for  raising 
tobacco.   Large  areas  of  the  tobacco  fields  are  covered  with  white  cheese- 
cloth, which  protects  the  plants  from  insects  and  the  intense  heat  of  the 
sun.   Scattered  over  the  fields  are  the  sheds  where  the  tobacco  is  dried 


There  are  many  to-day  who  cannot  read  or  write,  but  a 
system  of  free  public  schools  has  been  established,  and 
every  effort  is  being  made  to  have  the  children  attend 
school  at  least  a  part  of  each  year. 

Climate.  The  high  temperature  of  this  region  is  weak- 
ening, especially  to  white  people.  They  must  learn  to 
work  less  vigorously  than  they  would  in  the  temperate 
zone,  and  plan  to  have  a  great  deal  of  help.  On  the 
lowlands  there  is  never  frost  or  snow.  The  prevailing 
winds  are  the  northeast  trades.  As  the  moisture-laden 
winds  strike  the  mountains  and  rise,  the  rain  falls  on 
the  windward,  or  northeast,  side.  The  leeward,  or  south- 
west, side  is  dry, — a  condition  which  we  have  discovered 
in  many  places  where  winds  pass  over  mountains  and 
descend.  On  the  dry  side  of  the  island  irrigation  is 
necessary  to  assure  full  and  regular  crops.  The  rainy 
season  is  in  summer,  when  the  equatorial  rainy  belt 
moves  northward 
with  the  appar- 
ent movement  of 
the  sun. 

Products  and 
occupations.  The 
chief  product  is 
sugar,  of  which 
the  island  exports 
each  year  approx- 
imately 500,000 
tons.  It  consti- 
tutes over  50  per 
cent  of  all  the 
products  exported 

(Fig.  174).  Cotton,  coffee,  tropical  fruits,  and  tobacco  are 
among  the  other  products  (Fig.  175).  Some  of  the  fruits, 
especially  pineapples,  are  canned  before  they  are  shipped. 
Great  quantities  of  vegetables  are  raised  on  the  lowlands  of 
Porto  Rico.  They  ripen  during  the  winter  months  and  are 
sent  directly  to  the  markets  of  the  United  States. 

Although  most  of  the  people  in  Porto  Rico  are  engaged 
in  agriculture,  there  is  a  little  manufacturing.  Cigars  and 
cigarettes  are  made.  Large  numbers  of  them  are  used 
by  the  Porto  Ricans,  but  a  great  many  are  exported. 

In  some  ways  the  United  States  is  fortunate  in  hav- 
ing possessions  in  the  tropics  and  in  having  commercial 
relations  with  many  other  tropical  countries,  for  from 
those  lands  we  secure  products  which  we  cannot  raise  in 
abundance  at  home. 

Railways.  Since  the  United  States  took  control  of 
Porto  Rico,  over  1000  miles  of  roads  have  been  im- 
proved, and  about  300  miles  of  railway  constructed.  The 
main  line  of  travel  is  on  the  lowlands  about  the  margin 
of  the  island.   See  map  between  pages  117  and  120. 


Uode.wooJ  &  LnJerwooi 


Fig.  176.  San  Juan  was  a  sleepy  old  Spanish  town 

until  1898,  when  Porto  Rico  became  a  United  States 

possession.  Now  it  is  a  busy  modern  seaport.  Can 

you  explain  the  change  ? 


THE  VIRGIN  ISLANDS 


91 


Cities.  The  two  largest  cities 
are  San  Juan  (Fig.  176)  and  Ponce. 
San  Juan,  the  capital,  is  on  the 
north  side,  and  Ponce  is  on  the 
south  side.  They  are  now  con- 
nected by  a  railroad  which  runs 
around  the  west  end  of  the  island. 

Government.  The  governor  of 
Porto  Rico  is  appointed  by  the 
president  of  the  United  States, 
but  most  of  the  local  affairs  are 
entirely  under  the  control  of  those 
living  on  the  island.  The  citizens 
over  twenty-one  years  of  age,  both 
natives  and  Americans,  who  have 
lived  there  for  a  year,  have  a 
right  to  vote.  The  voters  elect 
most  of  their  local  officials  and  a  commissioner  to  the 
United  States,  who  represents  Porto  Rico  in  Congress. 

THE  VIRGIN  ISLANDS 

The  Virgin  Islands,  which  the  United  States  purchased 
from  Denmark,  lie  about  50  miles  east  of  Porto  Rico  and 
have  a  combined  area  of  142  square  miles.  Compare  this 
with  the  area  of  the  smallest  state  in  the  Union  and 
with  the  area  of  Porto  Rico. 

These  little  islands  are  in  the  belt  of  the  northeast 
trades,  where  it  is  always  warm.  When  the  winds  strike 
the  mountains,  rain  falls,  so  that  the  northeast  sides,  as 

in  the  case  of  the 
other  islands  in 
the  West  Indies, 
are  well  watered. 
Most  of  the  rain 
comes  in  summer 
and  early  fall. 

The  islands  are 
the  tops  of  moun- 
tains, but  near 
the  coast  there  is 
enough  low  land 
for  large  crops  of 
sugar  and  cotton, 
which  are  the  two 
leading  products. 
Trade  is  increas- 
ing constantly  be- 
tween the  islands 

Fig.  178.    This  street  in  St.  Thomas  is  made  of  and     the    United 

steps.    The  city  is  built  on  the  slopes  of  three  n,    ,  rni 

mountains  overlooking  the  harbor,  and  the  steep  ,  P°P" 

streets  climb  straight  up  the  hillsides  ulation    of    these 


£.  M.  Newmftn 


Fig.  177.   This  is  a  typical  negro  family  of  Porto  Rico. 

Their  little  house  is  built  of  boards  and  thatched  with 

straw.   Back  of  the  house  is  the  banana  patch  from  which 

they  get  most  of  their  food 


islands  is  about  32,000.  Of  the 
three  islands,  St.  Thomas  is  the 
most  important  commercially. 
This  is  due  to  its  advantageous 
position.  The  island  is  located 
directly  on  the  sailing  route  be- 
tween the  ports  of  Europe  and 
the  entrance  to  the  Panama 
Canal,  and  also  on  the  line  of 
communication  between  North 
and  South  America.  Its  one  town, 
St.  Thomas  (Charlotte  Amalie),  is 
located  on  the  lower  slopes  of 
three  mountains,  overlooking  one 
of  the  best  harbors  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  it  is  the  port  from 
which  the  agricultural  products 

of  the  surrounding  islands  are  shipped  to  other  parts 

of  the  world  (Figs.  178,  179). 

St.  Croix  and  St.  John,  the  other  two  islands  of  the 

group,  have  rich  soils  on  which  excellent  crops  of  sugar, 

cotton,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  tropical  fruits  are  raised. 


Fig.  179.    This  is  St.  Thomas,  the  port  of  St.  Thomas  Island,  one  of  the 

three  Virgin  Islands  which  the  United  States  bought  from  Denmark  in  1917 

for  $25,000,000.  St.  Thomas  has  a  landlocked  harbor  large  enough  to  shelter 

200  vessels.   Why  are  the  Virgin  Islands  valuable  to  the  United  States  ? 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  How  did  the  United  States 
come  into  possession  of  Porto  Eico  ?  of  the  Virgin  Islands  ? 
2.  Why  should  these  islands  have  warm  climates  with  plenty  of 
rainfall  for  agriculture  on  the  northeast  sides  ?  3.  Why  should 
they  be  drier  on  the  southwest  sides  ? 

4.  Should  you  expect  the  mountainous  portions  to  be  forested? 
See  map  on  page  124.  5.  Why  are  the  native  Indians  and  the 
negroes  very  useful  on  the  islands  ?  6.  At  what  season  of  the 
year  should  we  find  a  visit  to  Porto  Rico  most  enjoyable  ? 

7.  What  foods  should  you  probably  find  in  abundance  through- 
out the  islands  ?  8.  Of  what  advantage  is  it  to  the  United 
States  of  America  to  have  island  possessions  in  the  tropics  ? 
9.  What  are  the  chief  articles  that  the  people  on  these  islands 
wish  to  purchase  from  us  ? 


92 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


Courtesy  ot  Bureau  of  Public  Works,  Manila, 


Fig.  180.  These  Philippine  girls  are  grinding  corn  Fig.  181.    Some  of  the  people  of  the  Philippines  Fig.  182.  This  is  one  of  the  beautiful  little  horses 

in  a  simple  hand  mill  made  of  two  stones.   The  live  in  tree  houses  like  this.    They  climb  up  to  for  which  the  mountainous  province  of  Abra,  in 

corn  is  ground  while  it  is  fresh,  for  the  people  of  the  house  by  a  ladder  which  they  pull  up  after  northern  Luzon,   is  famous.    These  horses  are 
the  Philippines  do  not  like  it  dried                                      them  for  greater  safety  rather  small  but  very  sturdy  and  strong 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 

The  Philippines  are  the  tops  of  mountains  which  rose 
from  the  sea  bottom  until  their  summits  were  out  of 
water.  In  places  the  great  folds  in  the  earth  broke  open 
and  volcanoes  came  into  existence.  Along  the  cracks  and 
fissures  in  the  mountain  masses  little  slips  take  place 
from  time  to  time,  causing  earthquakes.  These  moun- 
tains are  therefore  young  and  are  still  growing.  Many 
of  them  now  rise  from  8000  to  10,000  feet  above  sea  level. 
Between  the  larger  ranges  there  are  broad  valleys  suit- 
able for  agriculture.   There  are  over  3000  islands  in  the 


Climate.  The  climate  in  the  Philippine  Islands  has  a 
greater  influence  upon  the  activities  of  the  people  than 
any  other  geographical  factor. 

The  islands  are  near  the  equator  and  are  surrounded  by 
sea  water.  The  temperature  is  never  very  low,  but  there 
is  a  noticeable  change  from  day  to  night.  The  nights 
are  commonly  cool  and  the  days  are  warm.  During  the 
winter,  except  on  the  windward  sides  of  the  mountains, 
there  is  little  rain,  but  from  June  to  September  there  is 
a  rainy  season  throughout  the  islands.  Under  such  weak- 
ening climatic  conditions  people  do  not  become  industri-. 
ous.    White  people  from  the  temperate  zone,  who  have 


group.  The  largest,  Luzon,  is  about  the  size  of  Kentucky,     lived  most  active  lives,  soon  stop  working  hard  if  they 

live  in  such  a  tropical  land.  There 
is  an  abundance  of  fruit  for  food, 
and  one  needs  but  little  clothing 
and  shelter.  There  is  therefore  no 
necessity  for  hard  work. 

Native  people.  There  are  over 
8,000,000  people  living  on  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands.  Among  the  native 
people  there  are  many  groups,  each 
with  a  distinct  language.  Most  of 
them  are  peaceful  and  industrious 
(Figs.  180,  183,  185,  186),  but  in 
the  mountains  away  from  the  sea- 
coast  there  are  yet'  many  wild  and 
some  savage  tribes  (Fig.  181). 

Occupations.    Gold,  copper,  and 

silver    have    been    found    in    the 

mountains,  and  mining  has  been  undertaken.  Along  the 

coast  there  are  fisheries,  and  farther  inland  there  is  some 


The  second  largest  is  Mindanao. 

Review   questions   and   map   studies. 

1.  Near  what  lands  are  the  Philippine 
Islands  ?  2.  Judging  from  the  latitude 
and  position  in  the  ocean,  describe  the 
climate  of  these  islands.  3.  Judging  from 
the  products,  name  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  people.  4.  What  is  the  chief  sea- 
port ?  On  which  island  is  it  located  ? 

5.  What  are  the  chief  products  ex- 
ported from  Manila  ?  6.  Do  the  imports 
and  exports  suggest  that  this  is  a  manu- 
facturing country  ?  Why  ?  7.  What  have 
you  seen  that  came  from  Manila  ?  8.  Why 
does  the  temperature  remain  about  the 
same  in  summer  and  winter  in  these 
islands  ?  9.  What  foods  do  these  islands 
produce  ?  10.  Why  do  the  natives  of  the 
Pacific  Islands  work  less  than  the  people 

of  the  United  States?  11.  Which  is  farther  from  the  equator, 
Guam  or  Manila  ?  12.  What  part  of  the  Philippine  Islands  is  in 
about  the  same  latitude  as  Panama  ?  13.  What  part  of  the  Philip- 


Courtesy  of  Bureau  of  Agriculture,  Manila 

Fig.  183.   Manila  hemp  is  made  from  the  sheathlike 

layers  of  the  trunk  of  the  abaca  tree.   This  man  is 

busy  pulling  off  the  layers,  one  by  one.   When  he  has 

finished,  most  of  the  trunk  will  have  been  removed 


pine  Islands  is  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  the  City  of  Mexico  ?     cattle-raising.    Lumbering  is  important  in  Mindanao. 


122° 
Baeki'Channet 

iJlTBAYAT  I 


Ginii  and  Company 


94 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS 


©  PuMistiers"  PLow  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  184.   The  mountain  rice  fields  are  cut  out  of  the  steep  slopes,  like  great 

steps  one  above  another.   Each  field  is  protected  by  a  high  stone  wall, 

which  keeps  the  soil  from  sliding  down  the  mountain.    The  water  is 

brought  to  the  fields  by  a  system  of  irrigation  ditches 

The  lowland  plains  have  rich  soils,  for  the  streams 
have  brought 'fine  material  from  the  mountain  slopes  and 
spread  it  out  on  the  lower  lands.  Sugar,  cotton,  rice, 
tobacco,  and  many  kinds  of  fruit  are  raised,  for  the 
most  part  on  these  lowland  areas.  In  many  places 
irrigation  is  practiced,  so  that  crops  are  not  entirely 
destroyed  during  the  dry  season.  The  lower  slopes  of 
the  mountains  are  also  used  for  agriculture  (Fig.  184). 

Rice  culture.  The  cultivation  of  rice  has  several  very 
interesting  stages.  The  fields  have  dikes  about  them,  so 
they  may  be  flooded.   When  the  rains  begin  to  fall,  these 


pull  the  seedlings,  and  the  women  and  older  children 
transplant  them.  Later  the  waters  are  drained  off  the 
fields,  and  the  grain  begins  to  ripen. 

By  the  first  of  November  the  harvesting  of  the  earliest 
crop  begins.  This  is  a  period  of  great  merriment,  the 
happiest  time  of  the  year.  At  three  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing on  harvest  days  lights  are  seen  in  every  house.  Long 
before  daybreak  groups  of 
men,  women,  and  children 
start  walking  over  the 
dikes  to  the  harvest  fields. 
Each  one  carries  a  flat- 
bottomed  basket,  large  or 
small  according  to  the  size 
of  the  worker.  They  work 
on  shares ;  sometimes  it 
is  a  fifth  of  all  that  the 
worker  has  cut,  sometimes 
a  fourth  or  a  third.  Each 
one  makes  a  separate  heap 
of  grain,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  day  the  owner  of 
the  field  gives  him  his 
share.  Then  the  workers 
tie  up  their  bundles  of 
grain  and  start  for  home, 
singing  and  laughing  after 
the  long  day  in  the  field. 

Manila  hemp  is  the  best-known  product  of  the  Philip- 
pines. The  rich  volcanic  soils  of  the  lower  mountain 
slopes,  with  the  abundant  rainfall,  give  just  the  right 
conditions  for  the  growth  of  the  abaca  tree,  from  which 

dikes  keep  the  water  from  running  off,  so  the  dry,  hard     the  fiber  comes  (Figs.  183, 185).  The  Filipinos  take  excel- 

earth  becomes  a  mud.    In  certain  fields  men  are  at  work     lent  care  of  their  abaca  trees.    Each  year  they  cut  only 

plowing  and  harrowing  the  wet,  muddy  ground.    In  this     those  which  are  full-grown.    The  long,  white  fibers  are 

work  the  water  buffalo,  one  of  the 

few  animals  that  will  work  well 

in  mud,  is  very  helpful.    After 

the  plowing  and  harrowing,  the 

seeds  are  scattered  broadcast. 
In  about  three  weeks,  or  at 

the  beginning  of  June,  the  seed- 
lings are  nearly  a  foot  high  and 

are   ready  to   be   transplanted. 

Everyone  who  is  old  enough  to 

work  in  the  field  must  help,  for 

the  transplanting  must  be  done 

quickly.    Most  of  the  men  and 

boys  continue  the  plowing  of 

new  fields,  but  a  few  help  the 

women  and  girls  in  the  trans- 
planting. The  experienced  men 


Fig.  185.  This  man  is  stripping  abaca 

sheaths    by   pulling    them  under  a 

sharp  knife.    After  this  the  strips 

will  be  dried  in  the  sun 


■ 


?.'!ig.aaggf 


Courtesy  of  Bureau  of  Science,  Manila 

Fig.  186.  This  Filipino  family  is  threshing  and  winnowing 
rice.  The  men  separate  the  grain  from  the  stalks  by  pounding 
them  on  a  stone.  The  women  winnow  the  rice  by  tossing  the 
grain  into  the  air.   As  it  falls  the  wind  blows  the  chaff  away 


bound  in  bundles  and  shipped 
in  large  quantities  from  Manila 
to  Europe  and  the  United  States, 
where  they  are  made  into  strong 
rope  and  twine.  Some  rope  is 
manufactured  in  the  Philippines. 
Foreign  trade.  Manila  is  the 
chief  seaport  and  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment (Fig.  189).  The  popu- 
lation of  the  city  is  over  200,000. 
Large  quantities  of  raw  hemp, 
sugar,  and  tobacco  are  shipped 
from  Manila  to  the  United 
States.  Copra,  the  dried  meat  of 
the  coconut,  from  which  coconut 
oil  is  extracted,  is  also  exported 
in  large  quantities. 


GUAM  AND  THE  SAMOA  ISLANDS 


95 


Government.  Since  1898,  when  we  paid  Spain  twenty 
million  dollars  to  give  up  all  claim  to  these  islands,  the 
government  has  been  under  the  direction  of  the  United 
States.  The  native  people,  however,  have  been  given 
practically  complete  control  of  local  affairs.  They  have 
a  legislature  of  their  own  and  send  two  commissioners  to 
our  national  Congress.  We  are  helping  in  every  possible 
way  to  educate  the  people  and  to  train  them  to  establish 
and  maintain  a  good  government. 

Home  work.  Find  out  about  how  long  it  takes  to  go  from  San 
Francisco  to  Manila. 

GUAM 

The  island  of  Guam  is  only  thirty-two  miles  long 
and  from  four  to  ten  miles  wide.  It  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  by  Spain  in  1898,  after  the  close  of  the 

Spanish  War.  It  is  now 
used  as  a  naval  station, 
and  the  island  is  under 
the  control  of  the  Navy 
Department  of  the  United 
States. 

Guam  has  a  wireless 
telegraph  plant  and  cable 
connections  with  all  parts 
of  the  world.  The  native 
people  raise  rice,  maize, 
sweet  potatoes,  coffee,  co- 
coa, and  sugar. 

SAMOA  ISLANDS 


Courtesy  of  Bureau  of  Science,  Manila 

Fig.  187.  After  it  has  been  threshed 
and  winnowed,  the  girls  pound  the 
rice  in  a  hollowed-out  log  of  hard  wood. 
This  pounding  husks  the  rice  grains 


For  years  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  and  the  United 
States  have  been  interested 
in  the  Samoa  Islands  and 
have  made  various  treaties  regarding  their  rights  in  the 
islands.  At  present  the  island  of  Tutuila  and  a  number 
of  smaller  islands  close  by  are  among  our  possessions. 

These  islands  owe  their  importance  to  the  fact  that 
they  lie  on  the  direct  steamship  route  from  San  Francisco 
to  Sydney.  They  serve  as  naval  bases  and  as  coaling 
stations  for  vessels. 

The  native  people  in  the  islands  held  by  the  United 
States  have  control  of  most  local  affairs,  but  the  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  appoints  a  governor,  who  holds 
the  highest  office. 

The  Samoa  Islands  are  volcanic.  Some  of  the  vol- 
canoes are  no  longer  active,  but  many  of  them  erupt 
from  time  to  time,  and  earthquakes  are  common.  For 
the  most  part  the  islands  are  thickly  wooded  and  the 
soils  are  fertile. 

These  islands  are  so  near  the  equator  that  the  climate 


Fig.  188.   These  carts,  drawn  by  carabaos,  are  carrying  the  rice  harvest  to 

market  in  Luzon.   The  roads  here  are  good  and  are  lined  with  coconut  palms. 

Rice  is  the  largest  single  crop  in  the  Philippines,  but  the  people  do  not  raise 

all  they  need.  From  what  country  do  they  import  it  ? 

is  always  warm,  and  they  are  in  the  midst  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  where  the  temperature  is  about  the  same  in  summer 
as  in  winter.  At  times  they  suffer  from  severe  hurricanes. 
The  native  people  gather  the  coconuts  that  grow  in 
abundance  on  the  islands  and  dry  the  coconut  meat  to 
make  copra.  On  most  of  the  islands  the  natives  pay 
their  taxes  in  copra,  which  is  the  only  product  that  is 
sufficiently  abundant  to  export.  In  addition  they  raise 
for  their  own  use  breadfruit,  yams,  and  a  great  many 
tropical  fruits,  such  as  pineapples,  oranges,  and  bananas. 


Fig.  189.  Manila  is  located  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pasig  River  on  the  island 
of  Luzon.  This  view  shows  the  river,  which  is  deep  enough  for  the  smaller 
steamers  and  lighters.  The  larger  ships  must  either  anchor  in  the  open  water 
or  come  to  docks  in  the  new  harbor  formed  by  the  breakwater  beyond  the  city 


30 


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UNITED    STATES*  f 

POLITICAL  MAP  ~L         | 

SHOWING  PRINCIPAL  RAILROADS  % 

Scale  of  statute  miles 

s°°  3Q0  <00 


go    10O 


BO   lOO 

^w 


fioo 


I  J^ —      — 

Scale  of  kilometers 

100  300 


•k  Capital  of  country  *   Chief  seai&rts 

©  Capitals  of  states  A  Chief  lake  ° 

»> .   Principal  railroads 

j  Uplands  and  plateaus  „  , 

4 


~~ I  Lowlands 

— 1  (Chiefly  coastal  plain) 

~ 1  Lowlands  r~ 

_J  (Central  plains)  l_ 

_)  Great  plains 

1 


B  120°  C  US° 

Map  Mate,  Patented  July  5, 1821    •     Method  of  Making  Haps,  P.tented  July  5,  1921 


"I  Old,  worn-down 
J  mountains 

"1  Young,  rugged 
—I  mountains 


•      ATLANTIC  TIME  ZONE 


Ginn  and  Company 


98 


THE  NATION  AS  A  WHOLE 


THE  NATION  AS  A  WHOLE 

After  studying  the  different  parts  of  the  United  States 
and  its  possessions,  we  should  consider  the  nation  as  a 
whole  and  see  how  important  a  part  the  geographic  con- 
ditions have  played  in  the  settlement  of  the  country  and 
in  the  development  of  industrial  and  commercial  life. 

Early  settlements.  The  first  permanent  settlements 
in  the  United  States  were  on  the  Atlantic  coast  (Fig.  190). 
In  the  days  before  there  were  any  railroads  the  Appala- 
chian Mountains  held  the  people  near  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board. The  mountains  were  a  barrier  that  made  travel 
to  the  westward  difficult.  Moreover,  going  beyond  the 
mountains  to  live  meant  cutr 
ting  off  all  easy  communica- 
tion with  the  settled  portion 
of  this  country  and  also  with 
England.  Until  manufactur- 
ing plants  were  established  in 
America  the  colonist  s  depended 
upon  the  trade  with  England 
for  many  of  the  things  they 
needed.  Perhaps  the  presence 
of  Indians  west  of  the  moun- 
tains influenced  some  people  to 
stay  in  the  East.  However,  the 
fact  that  they  did  stay  together 
led  to  the  development  of  great 
strength  in  the  colonies  which 
united  to  make  this  nation. 


Fig.  190.  This  map  shows  the  distribution  of  population  in  the 
United  States  in  1790,  and  the  westward  movement  of  the  center  of 
population  since  that  time.  Near  what  cities  was  the  population 
densest  in  1790  ?  Trace  the  progress  of  the  center  westward.  Near 
what  city  was  the  center  in  1870  ?  in  1920  ? 


MAP  STUDIES  — POLITICAL  MAP  OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES 

See  map  between  pages  95  and  98.  1.  What  states  border  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  ?  2.  What  states  border  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ? 
3.  What  states  that  do  not  border  the  Atlantic  Ocean  or  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  include  a  part  of  the  Coastal  Plain  ?  4.  What 
state  is  north  of  Long  Island  ? 

5.  Of  what  state  is  Long  Island  a  part  ?  6.  What  two 
states  are  separated  by  Delaware  Bay?  7.  Into  what  two  states 
does  Chesapeake  Bay  enter  ?  8.  Between  what  two  states  is 
the  Savannah  River? 

9.  Locate  Mobile  Bay.  10.  In  what  state  is  the  delta  of  the 
Mississippi  River  ?  11.  What  state  is  separated  from  Mexico 
by  the  Rio  Grande?  12.  What  states  border  on  Lake  Erie? 
on  Lake  Michigan  ?  on  Lake  Superior  ? 

13.  The  banks  of  a  river  are  named  "right"  and  "left" 
as  one  would  see  them  looking  downstream.  Name  the  states 
on  the  west,  or  right,  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Name 
those  on  the  left  bank. 

14.  You  have  named  the  row  of  states  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Mississippi.  Next  to  them  on  the  west  is  a  row  whose 
eastern  parts  are  in  the  Central  Plains  and  whose  western  parts 
are  in  the  Great  Plains.    Name  these,  beginning  at  the  north. 


15.  What  states  include  a  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  ? 
16.  What  states  include  a  portion  of  the  great  plateau  between 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Cascade  and  Sierra  Nevada 
.Mountains?  17.  At  what  place  in  the  United  States  do  four 
states  come  together  ? 

18.  What  states  are  crossed  by  the  Colorado  River  ?  19.  In 
what  state  is  Great  Salt  Lake  ?  20.  To  what  state  should  you 
go  to  see  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado?  21.  What 
mountain  ranges  border  the  great  plateaus  on  the  west  ? 
22.  What  states  border  upon  Mexico  ? 

23.  Between  what  two  states  does  the  lower  part  of  the 
Columbia  River  flow  ?  24.  What  large  tributary  does  this 
river  receive  from  the  southeast?  25.  Bound  the  state  in 
which  you  live.     26.  Bound  the  United  States.     27.  What 

states  border  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean  ?  28.  What  states  border 
on  Canada?  29.  Are  the  rail- 
roads more  numerous  in  the  east- 
ern or  in  the  western  half  of  the 
United  States  ?    Why  ? 

30.  Lay  out  a  route  of  travel 
from  Boston  to  Los  Angeles 
by  way  of  New  York,  Albany, 
Buffalo,  Detroit,  Chicago,  St. 
Paul,  Glacier  National  Park, 
Seattle,  Portland,  San  Francisco. 
What  railroads  should  you  use  ? 
What  states  should  you  cross  ? 

31.  Return  from  Los  Angeles 
to  Chicago  by  a  route  that  will 
take  you  by  a  side  trip  to  the 
rim  of  the  Grand  Canyon  and 
through  Denver.  What  is  the 
name  of  the  railroad  used  and 

the  names  of  the  states  crossed  ?  32.  Make  a  list  of  the  chief 
seaports ;  the  chief  lake  ports.  Put  the  population  opposite 
each  city  name.  See  Appendix.  33.  What  are  the  ten  largest 
cities  in  the  United  States  ?  Arrange  them  in  the  order  of 
population. 

34.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  standard  time  of  New  York 
and  Chicago  ?  of  New  York  and  San  Francisco  ?  of  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  and  Denver,  Colorado?  35.  What  large  cities 
in  New  England  are  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  Rome, 
Italy?  36.  What  part  of  our  country  is  in  about  the  same 
latitude  as  Palestine,  where  Jerusalem  is  located  ? 

37.  What  large  cities  in  the  United  States  are  in  about  the 
same  longitude  as  Bogota,  the  capital  of  Colombia?  38.  Which 
is  farther  west  from  Greenwich,  —  the  capital  of  Texas  or  the 
capital  of  Mexico  ?  39.  Compare  the  latitude  of  San  Francisco 
with  that  of  Peking  and  also  with  that  of  Tokyo. 

Home  work.  1.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  United  States,  print 
in  from  memory  the  names  of  the  states.  If  necessary,  correct 
your  map  and  try  it  again.  Learn  to  do  this  perfectly.  2.  On  the 
same  outline  map,  locate  and  print  in  from  memory  the  names 
of  five  important  seaports,  five  large  lake  ports,  and  five  large 
river  cities.  3.  How  many  state  capitals  can  you  name  and  locate 
correctly  from  memory  ?    Test  yourself  on  an  outline  map. 


THE  NATION  AS  A  WHOLE 


99 


Westward  expansion.    The  westward  expansion  was         The  forests  are  always  of  importance ;  the  fish,  the 
largely  controlled  by  geography.    The  trails  used  by  the     waterways,  and  the  harbors  have  all  been  important  in 


pioneers  followed  the  easier 
routes  of  travel.  See  map  on 
pages  2  and  3.  On  the  north 
the  Great  Lakes  and  on  the 
south  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
formed  natural  boundaries. 

Later,  by  a  series  of  pur- 
chases and  treaties  (Fig.  191), 
the  wide  strip  of  land  stretch- 
ing from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  was  acquired  by 
the  United  States.  In  time 
Alaska,  the  Panama  Canal 
Zone,  and  various  islands  in 
the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans 
came  into  our  possession. 

As  pioneers  pushed  into 
all  parts  of  the  territory 
acquired  by  the  United  States,  trails  were  built  and  small 
settlements  were  established.  During  the  period  of  active 
railroad  construction,  which  fortunately  came  when  this 
country  was  being  opened  up,  these  settlements  were 
joined  together  by  a  great  network  of  roads.  To-day  it  is 
relatively  easy  to  reach  almostany  partof  the  United  States. 

Discovery  of  natural  resources.  With  the  expansion, 
the  increase  in  settlements,  and  the 
construction  of  railroads,  more  and 
more  of  the  natural  resources  of  this 
vast  country  have  been  discovered 
and  utilized. 

We  are  fortunate  in  having  rich 
soils,  broad,  level  lands,  and  abun- 
dant rainfall,  so  that  sufficient  food 
may  easily  be  raised.  In  this  country 
we  have  only  begun  to  test  our  ability 
to  produce  food.  We  have  never  had 
a  great  famine,  and  it  is  hard  for  us 
to  believe  that  in  some  parts  of  the 
world  millions  of  people  have  died  in 
a  single  year  for  want  of  food. 

Next  in  importance  comes  the  great 
group  of  resources  which  furnish  man 
with  power>  such  as  coal,  oil,  gas, 
and  streams.  These  sources  of  power 
have  increased  the  amount  of  work 
man  can  do  and  have  led  to  the 
remarkable  development  in  manu- 
facturing which  has  taken  place  in  the  United  States. 

Then  come  the  mineral  resources,  such  as  iron,  cop- 
per, gold,  silver,  lead,  and  zinc. 


Fig.  191.  This  map  shows  the  steps  by  which  the  United  States  has 
expanded  from  the  territory  of  the  original  thirteen  states  to  its 
present  size.  How  many  of  our  present  states  are  included  in  the 
original  territory  ?  List  the  different  additions  in  order  of  the  dates 
of  their  annexation 


Fig.  192.    This  view  shows   the  special  cut,  or 

blaze,  on  the  trees,  by  which  the  national  forest 

trails  are  marked.   In  what  ways  are  the  national 

forests  a  benefit  to  our  country  ? 


the  growth  of  the  nation. 

Conservation  of  natural  re- 
sources. Almost  everyone  in 
the  United  States  is  interested 
in  developing  or  using  great 
natural  resources.  Ithas  taken 
millions  of  years  for  the  de- 
posits of  coal,  iron,  gold,  silver, 
and  other  minerals  to  form, 
and  perhaps  as  long  for  the 
accumulation  of  natural  oil 
and  gas.  It  has  taken  a  long, 
long  time  for  the  formation 
of  the  soils.  Many  of  these  re- 
sources can  be  used  but  once 
and  can  never  be  replaced. 

Agriculture  is  dependent 
upon  the  fertility  of  the  soils 
and  upon  rain  or  other  water  supply.  Raw  materials  are 
essential  to  our  industrial  and  commercial  development  as 
a  nation.  In  this  country  we  have  come  to  know  that 
from  this  time  on  the  mineral  wealth  must  not  be 
wasted,  the  forests  must  be  protected,  the  fertility  of 
the  soils  maintained,  the  water-power  developed,  and 
many  of  the  dry  lands  irrigated.  Fish  and  game  should 
be  allowed  to  increase  in  numbers. 
The  spreading  of  injurious  animals 
and  insects  should  be  prevented, 
while  other  animals,  and  especially 
the  birds,  should  be  protected.  The 
birds  not  only  destroy  large  num- 
bers of  insects  but  add  much  to  the 
pleasure  of  the  people. 

These  facts  are  sufficient  to  con- 
vince one  that  the  natural  resources 
must  be  conserved  if  this  country  is 
to  continue  for  all  time  to  be  an 
attractive  place  for  people  to  live  in. 
Our  government  is  making  a  great 
effort  to  conserve   all   valuable  re- 
sources.   The  Reclamation  Service  is 
adding  large  areas  to  our  agricultural 
lands  by  irrigating  the  dry  places  and 
by  draining  the  wet  parts  ;  the  Forest 
Service  is  engaged  in  maintaining  the 
national  forests  (Fig.  192) ;  the  Bureau 
of  Mines  is  teaching  men  how  to  ex- 
tract the  rich  mineral  ores  from  the  earth  most  econom- 
ically ;   and  the  Department  of  Agriculture  is  helping 
the  farmer  to  raise  'larger  and  better  crops. 


100 


THE  NATION  AS  A  WHOLE 


Education.    The  American  colonists  had  high  ideals  easy  routes  for  transportation,  and  a  number  of  large 

of  education  and  very  early  established  schools  and  col-  industrial  and  commercial  lake  ports  have  developed, 

leges.   A  school  was  opened  for  each  new  settlement  in  On  the  south  direct  access  to  lands  in  the  tropics  is 

this  country,  and  as  prosperity  came  these  schools  were  afforded  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  which,  with  the  Carib- 


improved.  Thousands  of  high  schools  have  been  estab- 
lished. An  effort  has  been  made  to  give  each  American 
child  and  all  those  who  have  chosen  to  come  to  this 
country  from  foreign  lands  a  good  education. 

Most  of  the  states  now  have  a  number  of  normal 


bean  Sea,  forms  an  American  Mediterranean.  Its  waters 
touch  Central  America,  Mexico,  the  United  States,  and 
the  West  Indies,  and  reach  the  northern  shores  of  South 
America.  The  United  States  now  holds  a  prominent 
place   in    the    commerce  which    crosses    the    American 


schools  and  a  university,  and  many  of  the  states  have     Mediterranean,  and  in  the  future  it  will  undoubtedly 
established  agricultural  colleges,  either  associated  with     occupy  a  still  more  important  position. 

The  Pacific  coast  gives  us  access  to 
the  oriental  countries,  and  leads  us  to 
take  a  great  and  very  direct  interest  in 
the  development  of  Asiatic  nations 
(Fig.  193).  The  addition  of  Alaska  has 
given  us  land  which  ia  rich  in  mineral 
wealth  and  fish.  It  has  a  supply  of  coal 
which  will  become  of  importance  to 
commerce  on  the  Pacific.  The  islands 
of  Hawaii,  Samoa,  Guam,  and  the  Phil- 
ippines are  all  important  stations  in 
the  midst  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  They 
form  a  chain  joined  by  cables  and  by 
the  routes  of  travel  followed  by  the 
great  steamships  crossing  the  Pacific. 
The  Panama  Canal  is  of  immeasurable 
commercial  value,  and  our  islands  in 
the  West  Indies  give  us  additional  land 
in  the  tropics  where  certain  food  supplies 
may  be  produced. 

The  temperature  in  the  United  States 
varies  from  summer  to  winter  and  in  general  stimulates 
thought  and  develops  energetic  people.     The  seasonal 


Fig.  193.   Here  is  a  great  ocean  liner  lying  at  anchor  ofi  the  coast  of  Japan.   This  is  one  of  the  large 

ships  which  run  across  the  Pacific  Ocean,  carrying  freight  and  passengers  between  the  western 

ports  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  and  the  eastern  ports  of  Asia.  What  are  some  of  the  goods 

carried  on  its  westward  trips  ?  on  its  eastward  trips  ? 


the  universities  or  as  independent  institutions.  There 
are  also  numerous  special  schools  of  medicine,  dentistry, 
pharmacy,  mining,  and  engineering,  so  that  everyone 


changes  make  life  more  interesting  and  force  people  to 


who  wishes  may  find  a  place  to  go  for  higher  training     look  ahead  and  provide  for  the  future.    The  weather 


in  the  profession  of  his  choice. 

Geographic  factors  which  affect  the  growth  of  the  nation. 
When  a  land  is  divided  by  mountain  ranges  into  small 
natural  regions,  many  distinct  nations  are  apt  to  be 
developed.  Here  large  natural  regions  and  broad,  level 
stretches  of  fertile  lands  have  led  to  the  development 
of  a  unified  nation.  The  great  railroad  systems  have 
helped  to  bind  the  people  together.  The  breadth  of  view 
and  the  daring  of  the  American  people  are  in  some 
degree  due  to  the  extent  of  its  territory,  its  broad,  open 
expanse  of  prairie  lands,  and  its  wonderful  natural 
resources. 

The  location  of  the  United  States  on  the  shores  of  the 
Atlantic  is  of  great  importance  to  the  country.  It  makes 
possible  a  close  association  with  other  progressive  nations 
of  the  world.    On  the  north  the  Great  Lakes  provide 


conditions  are  not  so  severe  that  progress  is  impossible, 
and  yet  they  are  not  so  mild  that  everyone  becomes  lazy. 
The  climate  of  the  United  States  has  therefore  been  a 
factor  of  fundamental  importance  in  the  development 
of  a  strong,  progressive  nation. 

All  of  these  large  geographic  facts  have  been  of  im- 
portance in  the  development  of  the  nation  and  have  led 
not  only  to  great  internal  strength  and  great  wealth 
but  to  an  ever-increasing  interest  in  the  other  nations  of 
the  world. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Where  were  the  first  perma- 
nent settlements  in  this  country  ?  2.  Why  did  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  serve  as  a  barrier  to  migrations  westward  ?  3.  Describe 
the  routes  most  commonly  used  in  crossing  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.    See  map  on  pages  2  and  3. 

4.  How  did  rivers  affect  the  movements  of  pioneers  ?  5.  How 
have  railroads  helped  in  the  settlement  and  industrial  life  of  this 


THE  NATION  AS  A  WHOLE 


101 


country  ?  6.  What  natural  resource  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  the  United  States  ?  7.  Name  the  natural  resources  that  furnish 
power.    8.  What  metal  is  most  useful  to  man  ?  Explain. 

9.  How  may  the  fertility  of  soils  be  maintained  ?  10.  Why 
should  water  power  be  used  ?  11.  How  far  do  you  know  electrical 
power  to  be  transmitted  ?  12.  How  may  we  conserve  fuel  re- 
sources ?  metals  ?  forests  ?  13.  What  institutions  for  higher 
education  are  maintained  in  your  state  ? 

14.  How  have  the  Atlantic,  Gulf,  and  Pacific  coasts  proved 
beneficial  to  the  nation  ?  15.  Where  may  we  expect  our  commerce 
to  increase  greatly  in  the  next  fifty  years  ?  16.  Why  should  a 
variable  climate  with  large  seasonal  change  be  favorable  to  a 
progressive  civilization  ? 

Government.  The  thirteen  orig- 
inal colonies  became  the  first  states 
in  the  Union.  For  some  time  the 
newly  acquired  territories  were 
large  but  thinly  settled.  As  the 
number  of  people  increased,  the 
new  territories  acquired  were  di- 
vided and  local  governments  were 
established.  Each  division  was  in 
time  admitted  into  the  Union,  until 
there  are  now  forty-eight  states. 

The  national  Congress  is  com- 
posed of  a  Senate  and  a  House 
of  Representatives.  Each  of  the 
forty-eight  states  elects  two  sena- 
tors, but  the  number  of  repre- 
sentatives elected  by  each  state 
varies  with  the  population.  At 
present  there  are  four  hundred 
and  thirty-five  members  in  the 
House  of  Representatives  in  Con- 
gress. The  people  in  the  terri- 
torial possessions  send  delegates 
to  Congress. 

The  President  is  elected  by  the  citizens  of  the  United 
States  to  serve  for  a  term  of  four  years.  He  appoints, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Senate,  the  members  of 
his  Cabinet,  who  take  charge  of  the  great  departments 
of  public  affairs.  At  present  the  members  of  the  Cabinet 
include  secretaries  of  State,  the  Treasury,  War,  the 
Navy,  the  Interior,  Agriculture,  Commerce,  and  Labor, 
an  Attorney-General,  and  a  Postmaster-General. 

Washington  and  the  District  of  Columbia.  The  seat  of 
government  for  the  nation  is  the  city  of  Washington, 
situated  on  the  banks  of  the  Potomac  River  (Fig.  194). 
Washington  has  become  a  most  attractive  city,  of  which 
every  citizen  of  the  United  States  may  well  be  proud. 
It  was  established  as  a  seat  of  government  and  is  not 
an  industrial  center.  The  chief  business  in  Washington 
pertains  to  the  conduct  of  national  affairs.  The  Capitol 
(Fig.  195)  and  the  Congressional  Library  are  magnificent 


structures.  Large  buildings  have  also  been  constructed 
as  headquarters  for  most  of  the  departments. 

Each  foreign  nation  has  a  representative  or  a  group 
of  representatives  in  Washington,  and  it  is  an  everyday 
experience  to  those  living  in  the  capital  to  meet  people 
from  various  parts  of  the  world.  The  larger  foreign 
nations  have  buildings  of  their  own  in  the  city. 

Recently  a  large  building  has  been  constructed  in 
Washington  for  the  Pan  American  Union.  The  efforts 
of    all    those    associated    with    this    organization    are 


<£)  litnD  Mid  Company 

Fig.  194.   This  is  an  aeroplane  drawing  of  Washington.    The  extent  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  which 

corresponds  with  the  city  limits,  is  shown  by  the  darker  shading.    To  what  states  does  the  adjoining 

land  belong  ?    George  Washington  selected  this  site  for  the  national  capital  in  1790  and  made  the  first 

plans  for  the  city.  Describe  the  capital  and  its  surroundings  from  what  you  can  see  in  this  view 

directed  toward  bringing  about  a  closer  and  better 
relationship  between  the  countries  of  North  and  South 
America. 

The  National  Museum  is  a  place  of  great  historic  and 
scientific  interest.  The  Red  Cross  organization  has  a 
beautiful  home  in  Washington  (Fig.  196),  and  the  head- 
quarters of  the  National  Geographic  Society  are  here. 

Internal  development.  When  the  thirteen  colonies 
came  together  to  form  a  nation,  they  had  a  total  popula- 
tion of  about  1,000,000  people.  To-day  there  are  about 
105,000,000  people  in  the. United  States.  We  have  had 
a  period  of  most  prosperous  internal  development.  The 
growth  of  cities,  the  construction  of  railroads,  and  the 
establishment  of  all  kinds  of  educational  institutions 
have  been  remarkable.  The  nation  has  grown  strong 
and  powerful.  This  was  most  wonderfully  demonstrated 
in  our  participation  in  the  great  World  War. 


102 


THE  NATION  AS  A  WHOLE 


Fig.  195.  The  National  Capitol  at  Washington  is  a  very  beautiful  building  made  of  white  stone  and 
marble.  The  dome  is  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  Liberty,  representing  the  great  ideal  of  the  American 
nation.  In  one  of  the  wings  is  the  chamber  where  the  United  States  Senate  meets,  and  in  the  other 
is  the  Hall  of  Representatives.  The  Supreme  Court  has  its  room  in  the  main  building  of  the  Capitol 


Maritime  expansion.  To-day  we  are  moving  rapidly 
to  a  more  and  more  important  position  in  the  commerce 
of  the  world.  Our  great  factories  need  raw  materials 
from  distant  lands.  They  also  need  additional  markets 
where  their  ever-increasing  number  of  products  may  be 
sold.  Other  nations  wish  to  carry  on  an  exchange  of 
commodities  with  us.  The  United  States,  with  the  hun- 
dreds of  new  vessels  built  during  the  World  War  and 
the  many  which  will  be  built  each  year  in  the  American 
shipyards,  will  certainly  develop  a  large  international 
commerce. 

The  United  States  in  world  affairs.  Each  time  that  we 
acquired  a  possession  in  the  Atlantic  or  Pacific  Ocean 
we  assumed  the  responsibility  of  governing  or  assisting 
in  the  government  of  other  people.  This  responsibility 
has  led  our  government  officials  to  make  a  careful  study 
of  the  people  living  in  the  Hawaiian,  Samoan,  and 
Philippine  Islands.  We  have  also  the  problem  of  under- 
standing the  people  in  the  West  Indies  and  the  native 
people  of  Alaska.  In  each  of  these  countries  the  geo- 
graphic conditions  that  affect  the  lives  of  the  people 
are  different  from  those  in  the  United  States  proper. 

As  the  great  industries  of  the  United  States  have 
developed,  the  manufacturers  have  needed  more  men  and 
more  raw  materials.  Millions  of  people  have  come  from 
foreign  lands  to  live  in  this  country,  and  vast  supplies 
of  materials  are  being  imported.  These  factors  have  in- 
creased our  interest  in  the  other  countries  of  the  world. 

With  our  growth  in  international  commerce  and  the 
part  which  we  found  it  necessary  to  take  in  the  great 
World  War  our  interest  in  world  affairs  has  increased. 


It  has  become,  therefore,  more  and 
more  important  that  each  citizen  of 
the  United  States  should  know  the 
geography  of  foreign  countries. 

More  men  must  be  sent  from  the 
United  States  to  foreign  lands  to  repre- 
sent our  business  houses.  We  must 
have  diplomatic  and  consular  represents 
atives  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
the  number  in  this  service  must  be 
increased.  We  are  interested  not  only 
in  the  welfare  of  the  people  within  the 
United  States  and  our  various  posses- 
sions ;  we  are  interested  in  the  welfare 
of  all  peoples  and  must  continue  to  do 
our  part  to  preserve  peace  in  the  world. 
Individuals  cannot  live  happily  or  lead 
the  most  useful  lives  in  a  community 
unless  order  is  maintained  there,  and 
the  different  nations  cannot  continue 
their  growth,  and  civilization  cannot  ad- 
vance, unless  peace  and  order  are  maintained  in  the  world. 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Who  is  the  highest  public 
official  in  your  home  town  or  city  ?  How  was  he  elected  ?  For 
how  long  ?  2.  How  is  your  state  represented  in  Congress  ?  Who 
are  the  senators  ?   Who  is  the  representative  from  your  district  ? 

3.  Who  are  the  members  of  the  Cabinet  ?  4.  Where  is  the 
District  of  Columbia?  5.  How  does  Washington  differ  from  all 
other  large  cities  in  America?  6.  What  places  should  you  like  to 
visit  in  Washington  ? 

7.  About  how  much  larger  is  the  population  of  the  United 
States  now  than  it  was  at  the  time  of  the  Kevolutionary  War? 
8.  Why  should  we  be  interested  now  in  developing  foreign 
commerce?  9.  Why  should  we  be  interested  now  in  helping  to 
maintain  peace  not  only  at  home  but  throughout  the  world? 


Fig.  196.  This  building  is  the  headquarters  of  the  American  Red  Cross  in 

Washington.   The  Red  Cross  is  an  organization  to  which  every  boy  and  girl 

in  the  United  States  should  belong,  for  its  chief  object  is  to  relieve  the 

suffering  that  follows  great  disasters  in  all  parts  of  the  world 


CANADA 


103 


Fig.  197.   St.  John,  the  chief  city  of  New  Brunswick,  has  a  deep,  sheltered 

harbor  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  The  tides  in  the  bay  are  very  swift  and  strong, 

and  at  St.  John  the  tide  rise  is  twenty-five  feet.   This  view  shows  part  of 

the  harbor  at  a  time  when  the  tide  is  high 

CANADA 

Our  neighbor  on  the  north,  with  land  which  extends 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  north- 
ward into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  is  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 
It  is  part  of  the  British  Commonwealth  of  Nations. 

Most  of  the  people  in  Canada  are  of  British  descent. 
A  large  proportion  of  them  live  along  the  southern 
border,  near  the  United  States. 

The  political  divisions  of  Canada  correspond  to  our 
states,  but  they  are  called  provinces.  The  three  farthest 
east  are  the  Maritime  Provinces. 

Climate.  Use  map  on  page  124.  Most  of  Canada  has 
sufficient  rainfall  for  agriculture.  The  moisture-bearing 
winds  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  give  up  rain  on  the  moun- 
tains. There,  on  the  coast  ranges  and  Rocky  Mountains, 
dense  forests  flourish  and  glaciers  are  formed. 

On  the  Great  Plains  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
in  the  Far  North,  there  is  little  rainfall.  In  those  parts 
there  are  great  extremes  in  temperature,  but  the  dry  air 
and  bright  sunshine  are  bracing  and  healthful.  The 
whole  interior  of  Canada  has  what  is  known  as  a  con- 
tinental climate,  which  means  that  there  is  a  great 
change  in  temperature  from  summer  to  winter  and  only 
moderate  rainfall. 

The  air  becomes  cold  as  it  travels  far  to  the  north, 
and  it  gives  up  most  of  its  moisture  before  it  reaches 
the  tundra  area  on  the  northern  margin  of  the  continent. 
In  that  part  of  Canada  the  winters  are  so  long  and  so 
severe  that  very  few  people  live  there.  See  map  oppo- 
site page  124. 

In  the  valleys  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  Ottawa  rivers 
cold  winters  are  followed  by  warm  and  delightful  sum- 
mers. In  the  Maritime  Provinces,  which  are  nearly 
surrounded   by  water,    there  is   much  less    change  in 


Fig.  198.   This  is  the  same  spot  when  the  tide  is  out,  and  the  boats  that 

were  afloat  are  now  aground  on  the  reddish-brown  mud  flat.    Why  is  the 

harbor  of  St.  John  never  icebound  in  winter  ?  Why  is  it  foggy  in  summer  ? 

Explain  the  great  rise  of  the  tide  here 

temperature  from  season  to  season  than  there  is  farther 
inland.  The  climate  of  these  provinces  is  therefore 
much  like"  that  of  New  England.       ^ 

APPALACHIAN  HIGHLANDS 

Beginning  at  the  east  (see  map,  p.  122),  the  first 
natural  region  is  part  of  the  Appalachian  Highlands. 
It  includes  most  of  the  land  to  the  southeast  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  River,  as  well  as  the  islands  in  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence.  The  mountains  in  this  part  are  old 
and  worn  down.  They  are  rounded,  smoothed,  and 
forested.  The  rest  of  the  land  is  either  plateau-like  or 
forms  a  part  of  the  Coastal  Hilly  Belt  which  we  studied 
in  connection  with  the  New  England  region. 

New  Brunswick  has  a  sunken  coast  with  good  harbors, 
and  those  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy  are  always  free  from 
ice  (Figs.  197,  198).  Fishing  is  the  chief  occupation  of 
the  people.  This  province  is  partly  covered  with  spruce 
forests,  and  that  has  led  to  the  grinding  of  wood  into 
pulp,  which  is  also  an  important  industry.  Dairy-farming 
and  agriculture  are  spreading  throughout  the  area 
where  the  forests  have  been  cleared  away. 

Prince  Edward  Island  is  a  hilly  land  with  an  irregular 
coast.  The  chief  occupations  of  the  people  are  fishing, 
fruit-growing,  and  dairy-farming.  Cheese  and  butter  are 
made  for  export,  and  the  skimmed  milk  is  given  to  pigs. 

Nova  Scotia.  The  irregular  peninsula  southeast  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  together  with  Cape  Breton  Island,  form 
the  province  of  Nova  Scotia.  There  are  many  excellent 
harbors  along  the  coast,  because  the  shore  line  is  sunken 
(Fig.  199).  Halifax  has  the  best  harbor  on  the  mainland, 
and  Sydney  the  best  harbor  on  Cape  Breton  Island. 

Bordering  the  Bay  of  Fundy  are  rich  orchard  lands  and 
many  excellent  farms.    Apples  are  grown  and  exported 


104 


CANADA 


in  large  quantities.  Lumbering  is  carried  on,  and  the 
wood-pulp  industry  has  been  established  ;  and  where  the 
forests  have  been  cleared  away,  farming  has  been  begun. 


Fig.  199.  This  is  the  harbor  of  Yarmouth,  one  of  the  most  prosperous  towns 

of  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  situated  on  a  small  bay  at  the  southwestern  end  of 

the  peninsula  and  is  the  chief  shipbuilding  center  of  the  province.   The 

lake  country  back  of  Yarmouth  is  much  visited  by  tourists 

Nova  Scotia  is  fortunate  in  having  a  large  supply  of 
coal.  It  produces  each  year  about  half  of  all  the  coal 
mined  in  Canada.  Iron  is  secured  from  Newfoundland, 
and  these  two  natural  resources  give  promise  of  a  great 
commercial  and  industrial  future  for  Nova  Scotia.  There 
are  foundries  at  Sydney,  where  the  Newfoundland  iron 
ore  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  rails. 

Home  work.  1.  On  an  outline  map  of  Canada  locate  and  name 
the  chief  seaports,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion,  and  three  impor- 
tant inland  cities.  2.  Classify  your  pictures  of  Canada  by  natural 
regions.  3.  Read  about  Amundsen's  and  Stefansson's  travels  among 
the  islands  of  the  Arctic  Archipelago.  4.  Read  and  report  on  the 
government  of  Canada.  5.  Read  and  report  on  the  tides  in  the 
Bay  of  Fundy.  6.  Read  about  the  building  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway. 

LAURENTIAN  UPLAND 

Northwest  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  north  of  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  extending  far  into  the  Arctic  Ocean 
is  the  Laurentian  Upland.  See  map  on  page  122.  This 
vast  area  varies  in  elevation  up  to  about  2000  feet  above 
the  sea.  At  the  extreme  northern  end  of  Labrador,  in 
the  region  east  of  Ungava  Bay,  mountains  have  been 
reported  which  rise  to  a  height  of  6000  feet  above  sea 
level.  The  far  northern  part  of  this  natural  region  is 
but  little  known. 

The  Laurentian  Upland  is  a  very  old  land.  Indeed, 
it  is  probably  as  old  as  any  land  in  North  America  or 
any  other  continent.  The  rocks  have  been  exposed  to 
the  weather,  broken  up,  and  formed  into  soils.  Rivers 
have  worn  down  the  lands,  and  the  great  continental 
glaciers  that  formed  in  this  region  have  assisted  in  the 
work  (Fig.  14).    The  Laurentian  Upland  extends  into 


the  provinces  of  Quebec,  Ontario,  Manitoba,  Saskatche- 
wan, and  Alberta,  and  into  the  Provisional  Districts  of 
Keewatin,  Mackenzie,  and  Franklin. 

Throughout  the  region  there  are  numerous  lakes, 
swamps,  marshes,  and  ponds.  Rivers  usually  connect 
the  small  bodies  of  water,  and  thus  canoe  journeys  may 
be  planned  through  most  of  this  country ;  in  fact,  that  is 
the  usual  method  of  travel  in  the  country  beyond  the 
railroad  lines. 

The  province  of  Quebec  has  the  advantage  of  a  shore 
line  on  each  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  on  Hudson 
Bay.  The  best  soils  are  in  the  St.  Lawrence  Lowlands 
and  on  the  narrow  terraces,  or  benches,  which  border  the 
St.  Lawrence  River.  Most  of  the  settlements  are  therefore 
located  near  the  river.  The  farms  are  principally  on  the 
south  bank.  Each  farm  has  a  little  frontage  on  the  river 
and  extends  back  for  some  distance  to  the  higher  land. 

In  the  region  of  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  the  majority 
of  the  people  are  of  French  descent  and  speak  the  French 
language.  In  their  homes,  schools,  churches,  and  town 
organizations  they  live  much  as  their  forefathers  did  who 
came  to  this  coast  from  France  hundreds  of  years  ago. 

Nearly  all  the  streams  draining  from  the  uplands 
toward  the  St.  Lawrence  have  falls  in  their  courses.  In 
this  region  there  is  a  fall  line  such  as  we  found  along  the 
east  margin  of  the  Piedmont  Belt  in  the  United  States. 
The  water-power  along  that  line  should  lead  to  the 
growth  of  manufacturing  towns. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  St.  Lawrence  there  are 
remarkable  deposits  of  asbestos,  which  provide  nearly 
all  the  world's  supply.  This  material  is  found  in  great 
cracks  in  the  rocks.  It  is  sometimes  called  mineral  wool. 


Fig.  200.  Quebec  is  located  on  a  bold  headland  overlooking  the  broad 
St.  Lawrence  River.  The  Upper  Town  is  partly  walled  and  has  an  ancient 
citadel.  This  view  shows  Dufferin  Terrace  and  the  Lower  Town.  Locate 
Quebec  on  your  map.  It  has  been  called  the  "  Guardian  of  the  Gateway  to 
Canada."    Can  you  tell  why  ? 

The  city  of  Quebec  is  a  wonderfully  attractive  place 
with  special  historic  interests.  The  city  is  built  in  part 
on  the  heights  above  the  St.  Lawrence  and  in  part  on 
the  lowland  bordering  the  river  (Fig.  200).    The  city 


CANADA 


105 


was  founded  as  a  fur-trading  post,  and  the  site  was 
chosen  because  it  was  an  easy  place  to  defend.  The 
estuary  of  the  St.  Lawrence  ends  at  the  city,  but  the 


Fig.  201.  Montreal  occupies  part  of  a  low  island  at  the  junction  of  the 
Ottawa  and  St.  Lawrence  rivers.  The  Ottawa  River  opens  up  the  forested 
district  to  the  north  and  west,  and  the  lumbering  there  has  led  to  the  build- 
ing of  pulp  mills  at  Montreal.   What  are  the  other  industries  of  Montreal  ? 

tide  runs  for  90  miles  farther  upstream.  Formerly 
Quebec  was  the  chief  seaport  of  Canada,  but  the  deep- 
ening of  the  river  has  allowed  ocean-going  vessels  to 
continue  upstream  to  Montreal. 

Home  work.    Find  out  all  the  uses  you  can  for  asbestos. 

Montreal  has  a  wonderful  situation.  It  is  a  thousand 
miles  from  the  Atlantic  and  is  on  a  great  navigable 
river  which  is  the  outlet  of  the  Great  Lakes.  But  for 
one  handicap  it  might  rival  the  greatest  Atlantic  ports. 
That  handicap  is  ice,  for  from  the  middle  of  December 
to  near  the  end  of  April  the  river  is  frozen.  The  Ottawa 
River  encircles  the  city,  and  logs  are  drifted  down 
that  river  from  the  forested  areas  to  the  northwest. 

Montreal  is  now  the  metropolis  of 
Canada,  an  important  railway  center, 
and  the  terminus  of  many  steamship 
lines  (Fig.  201).  Large  harvests  of 
wheat  come  to  Montreal  from  the 
West,  in  part  by  way  of  the  Great 
Lakes  and  in  part  by  rail.  Lumber  and 
wood  pulp  are  made  of  the  logs  that 
are  sent  down  the  Ottawa  River.  The 
grain  coming  into  the  city  has  led  to  the 
establishment  of  flour  mills  and  brew- 
eries. The  route  to  the  south  through 
Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson  valley 
to  New  York  City  is  only  420  miles 
long.  Large  trans-Atlantic  vessels  bring 
European  goods  directly  to  Montreal 
and  take  away  the  raw  materials  which 
Canada  sends  to  the  Old  World. 


These  geographic  advantages  explain  why  Montreal 
has  come  to  have  a  population  of  half  a  million  people, 
—  a  large  number  when  we  remember  that  the  total  popu- 
lation of  Canada  is  not  much  more  than  eight  million. 

HUDSON  BAY  LOWLAND 

At  the  southern  end  of  Hudson  Bay  there  is  a  small 
coastal  plain.  See  map  on  page  122.  This  is  a  land  of 
clay  soils.  It  is  forested  now,  and  there  is  an  abundance 
of  game  in  the  forests.  Some  day  the  trees  will  be 
cleared  away  and  this  lowland  region  will  probably 
become  an  agricultural  district. 

CENTRAL  PLAINS 

North  of  Lake  Ontario  and  Lake  Erie  there  is  a  small 
portion  of  the  Central  Plains,  a  natural  region  which 
we  studied  in  connection-  with  the  United  States.  See 
map  on  page  122. 

This  land  is  sometimes  called  the  Lake  Peninsula 
because  it  is  bordered  on  the  south,  east,  and  west  by 
lake  waters.  It  is  one  of  the  most  favored  parts  of 
Canada.  The  soils  are  rich,  and  it  was  formerly  a  wheat- 
producing  area.  Now  that  wheat  is  grown  more  cheaply 
on  the  Great  Plains  of  the  West,  dairy  farming  and  the 
raising  of  swine  have  become  important. 

Oil  has  been  discovered  in  the  rocks  underlying 
these  plains,  and  this  should  lead  to  greater  industrial 
development. 

The  province  of  Ontario  includes  the  Canadian  exten- 
sion of  the  Central  Plains,  a  portion  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Lowland,  and  some  of  the  Laurentian  Upland.  In  the 
Laurentian  Upland  silver,  iron,  copper,  and  nickel  are 
obtained.  Near  Sudbury,  an  important  railway  center, 
are  some  of  the  richest  nickel  mines  in  the  world. 


Fig.  202.   The  harbor  at  Port  Arthur  on  Thunder  Bay  in  Lake  Superior  is  full  of  lake  freighters, 

some  west-bound  for  Duluth,  and  others  east-bound  for  ports  on  the  other  Great  Lakes.  Port  Arthur 

and  Fort  William  are  receiving  and  shipping  centers  for  the  grain  from  the  prairies.   The  building 

of  passenger  vessels  and  grain  carriers  is  an  important  industry  at  Port  Arthur 


106 


CANADA 


0J      CO 


•  HojsojipaiA     § 


108 


CANADA 


Fig.  205.  This  is  the  railroad  bridge  over  the  North  Saskatchewan  River  at  Edmonton,  the  capital 

of  Alberta.   Two  transcontinental  railroads  pass  through  Edmonton,  making  it  a  very  important 

commercial  center.   Beyond  the  bridge  you  can  see  the  city  and  the  Provincial  Parliament  buildings. 

The  trappers  from  the  north  bring  their  furs  to  Edmonton  for  sale  and  exchange  for  supplies 


Indians  (Fig.  206).  They  collect  furs, 
hunt  the  caribou,  and  fish  in  the 
rivers  and  lakes.  There  are  no  towns 
in  this  part  of  Canada,  but  only 
small  trading  posts.  -The  white  people 
here  are  chiefly  interested  in  secur- 
ing furs. 

Home  work.  1.  From  the  Appendix  find 
out  what  are  the  five  largest  cities  of 
Canada.  2.  Locate  these  cities  on  an  outline 
map.  3.  Learn  to  name  and  locate  these 
cities  accurately  from  memory.  4.  Find  out 
one  important  thing  about  each  of  these  cities. 


WESTERN  MOUNTAINS  AND  PLATEAUS 


which  we  studied  in  connection  with  North  Dakota  and 
Minnesota.    It  has  a  deep,  rich  soil  containing  hardly 

a  stone.  The  mountain  and  plateau  part  of  Canada  is  a  region  of 

Manitoba  includes  a  part  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Low-  wonderful  scenic  beauty,  with  high  mountains,  hundreds 

land,  some  of  the  Laurentian  Upland,  and  in  the  south  of  glaciers,  beautiful  mountain  lakes  (Fig.  208),  and  deep 

a  part  of  the  Great  Plains.  canyons.    A  great  part  of   this  region  is   yet  almost 

Winnipeg  is  the  third  largest  city  in  Canada.    In  the  untouched  by  man. 

early  days  it  was  a  small  fur-trading  post,  but  the  location  British  Columbia.    Much  of  this  province  is  heavily 


was  favorable  to  the  growth  of  a  large  city.  It  is  only 
400  miles  from  Lake  Superior,  in  the  midst  of  a  pros- 
perous farming  country  and  halfway  between  Montreal 
and  Vancouver.  It  is  the  largest  grain  and  fur  market 
in  the  British  Commonwealth.  It  contains  one  of  the 
largest  grain  elevators  in  Canada  and  is  coming  to  be 
a  great  manufacturing  center. 

Saskatchewan  and  Alberta.  These  provinces  are  for 
the  most  part  within  the  Great  Plains.  Tbey  include 
with  Manitoba  the  great  wheat  and  oat-producing  lands 


forested,  and  in  the  mountains  mining  has  been  under- 
taken. The  chief  city  of  British  Columbia  is  Vancouver, 
which  has  an  excellent  harbor  and  is  the  western  ter- 
minus of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad.  Vessels  start 
northward  from  there  along  the  coast  for  Alaska,  and 
others  leave  for  Japan,  China,  Australia,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Pacific.    See  map  on  page  107. 

Vancouver  exports  wheat  from  Alberta,  and  salmon 
caught  in  the  cold  streams  of  British  Columbia.  Min- 
erals from  the  mines  of  British  Columbia  and  lumber 


of  Canada.   Regina  is  the  chief  city  in  Saskatchewan,  and     from  the  wonderful  forests  of  giant  Douglas  fir  are  also 
Edmonton  (Fig.  205)  is  the  chid:  city  in  Alberta.    The     exported  (Fig.  209).    Opposite  this  seaport,  on  the  island 


transcontinental  railroads 
have  made  possible  the 
rapid  settlement  and  devel- 
opment of  this  part  of 
Canada. 

Provisional  districts  of 
Keewatin,  Mackenzie,  and 
Franklin.  Relatively  little 
is  known  of  this  part  of 
the  country.  It  is  a  wilder- 
ness. Exploring  parties 
have  found  their  way  be- 
tween the  northern  islands 
and  passed  from  Baffin 
Bay  to  Bering  Strait.  They 
have  found  a  few  Eskimos 
living  on  the  Far-Northern 
islands.  Most  of  the  peo- 
ple on  the   mainland   are 


Fig.  206.   This  is  a  wandering  Indian  family  of  northern  Canada.   They 

roam  over  the  cold,  treeless  plains,  living  by  fishing  and  by  hunting  caribou 

and  musk  oxen.    Why  do  they  not  raise  crops  ?   Why  are  they  constantly 

moving  about  ?  What  is  their  tent  made  of  ? 


of  Vancouver,  there  are  coal 
mines  which  supply  western 
Canada.  Many  of  the  steam- 
ships which  cross  the  Pacific 
secure  their  fuel  from  these 
mines. 

The  island  of  Vancouver 
has  a  delightful  climate  with 
but  slight  changes  in  tem- 
perature. The  mountain 
scenery  and  the  lakes  and 
forests  add  beauty  to  the 
country.  In  the  fertile 
valleys  are  many  comfort- 
able homes.  Victoria,  at  the 
southern  end  of  the  island, 
is  the  capital  of  British 
Columbia  and  an  important 
Canadian  port. 


CANADA 


109 


Yukon.  Those  who  go  to  the  Yukon  country  usually 
follow  the  coast  route  to  Skagway,  Alaska,  and  then 
cross  the  mountains  on  a  railway  to  the  headwaters  of 
the  Yukon  River.  The  Yukon  country  is  for  the  most 
part  mountainous.  The  famous  Klondike  Gold  Field  is 
located  on  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Yukon  River  near 
the  city  of  Dawson.  The  climate  in  that  part  of  Canada 
is  severe,  with  long,  cold  winters  and  short,  cool  summers. 
Few  people  would  ever  go  there  if  it  were  not  for  the 
gold  which  is  found  in  the  stream  gravels  (Fig.  207).  In 
the  mountains  there  are  many  mines,  and  we  may  expect 
mining  to  be  further  developed  in  this  province. 

Conservation  of  Natural  Resources 

Canada's  great  wealth  lies  in  its  natural  resources,  and 
the  future  of  the  country  depends  chiefly  upon  the  way 

in  which  the  re- 
sources are  used. 
To  safeguard 
against  waste  of 
natural  resources 
Canada  created 
a  Commission  of 
Conservation  in 
1909.  This  com- 
mission, like  our 
own  in  theUnited 
States,  is  subdi- 
vided into  differ- 
ent departments. 
There  are  depart- 
ments of  land, 
forest,  mineral, 
fuel,  game,  and 
water-power  conservation.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  officers 
of  each  department  to  make  a  study  of  the  natural 
resources  for  which  that  department  is  responsible. 

For  example,  those  who  have  charge  of  the  conserva- 
tion of  minerals  have  not  only  made  a  business  of  dis- 
covering what  possibilities  there  are  in  Canada  of  greater 
mineral  development  but  have  found  out  how  the  differ- 
ent minerals  can  be  most  economically  mined.  Each  of 
the  departments  aims  to  make  its  services  just  as  valu- 
able to  the  nation  as  possible. 

It  often  happens  that  the  work  of  one  department  is 
a  help  to  another.  Thus,  when  the  committee  on  minerals 
discovered  rich  deposits  of  phosphate  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Parks,  this  discovery  was  of  great  value  to 
the  department  of  agriculture  because  it  provided  a 
source  of  fertilizer  for  the  farmers. 

The  work  done  by  the  Commission  of  Conservation 
will  be  of  great  help  in  the  development  of  Canada. 


Fig.  207.   This  man  is  a  gold  prospector.   He  is 

washing  the  river  sands  and  gravels  in  his  pan 

to  find  out  whether  they  contain  enough  gold  to 

make  mining  worth  while 


Fig.  208.   These  horsemen  are  riding  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Louise,  one  of 

the  most  beautiful  sheets  of  water  in  the  Canadian  Rockies.   The  lake  is 

more  than  a  mile  above  sea  level  and  is  surrounded  by  high,  snow-covered 

mountains.   What  part  of  the  United  States  is  similar  to  this  region  ? 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Why  do  most  of  the  people 
in  Canada  live  near  the  southern  margin  of  the  country  ?  2.  What 
winds  bring  moisture  to  British  Columbia  ?  3.  Why  is  it  dry  in 
the  Great  Plains  region  ?  4.  How  does  the  Labrador  Current 
affect  the  climate  of  the  east  coast  ? 

5.  What  section  has  the  greatest  annual  range  in  temperature, 
or  difference  between  the  hottest  season  and  the  coldest  season  ? 
6.  What  is  the  general  influence  of  the  oceans  on  the  temperature 
of  the  lands  near  them  ? 

7.  How  does  temperature  change  with  latitude?  with  altitude? 
8.  What  are  the  chief  products  of  Nova  Scotia  ?  9.  What  condi- 
tions made  possible  the  steel  industry  at  Sydney  ?  10.  What  is 
the  chief  occupation  of  the  people  of  New  Brunswick  ? 

11.  What  is  the  usual  way  to  travel  in  the  northern  wilderness 
of  the  Laurentian  Upland  ?  12.  What  use  is  being  made  of  the 
forests  of  the  Laurentian  Upland  ?  13.  In  what  part  of  Canada 
is  the  French  language  commonly  spoken  ?  14.  Why  should 
Montreal  have  become  a  larger  city  than  Quebec  ? 

15.  What  is  the  capital  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  ?  16.  Where 
are  the  prosperous  farming  districts  of  Canada  ?  17.  Where  are 
the  chief  mining  districts  of  Canada  ?  18.  What  geographic  con- 
ditions favored  the  growth  of  Winnipeg  ?   Vancouver  ?  Dawson  ? 


Fig.  209.   Many  logging  railroads  have  been  built  in  the  lumbering  sections 

of  British  Columbia.    At  the  left  in  this  picture  is  a  donkey  engine  which 

is  used  to  haul  logs  to  the  railroad  and  to  load  them  on  the  cars.   Account 

for  the  dense  forests  in  western  British  Columbia 


110 


NEWFOUNDLAND  AND  LABRADOR 


Fig.  210.  St.  Johns,  the  capital  of  Newfoundland,  is  situated  on  one  of  the 
finest  harbors  in  America.  The  harbor  is  landlocked  and  deep,  offering 
anchorage  to  the  largest  ships  even  at  low  tide.  It  can  be  entered  only  by 
way  of  a  narrow  channel  guarded  by  high  cliffs.    Fishing  is  the  chief 

NEWFOUNDLAND  AND  LABRADOR 

Newfoundland  is  about  the  size  of  Maine  and  New 
Hampshire  combined.  It  is  the  northeastern  terminus 
of  the  Appalachian  Highlands.  The  western  portion  is 
mountainous,  and  the  rest  of  the  island  is  hilly,  with 
small  areas  of  level  land  in  some  of  the  valleys.  The 
eastern  coast  of  Newfoundland  has  sunk,  forming  a  num- 
ber of  deep  fiords,  long  peninsulas,  and  high  cliffs,  and 
producing  several  excellent  harbors. 

Most  of  the  life  in  Newfoundland  is  near  the  coast. 
Fishing  is  the  chief  occupation.  Offshore  there  is  an  area, 
larger  than  the  island  itself,  where  the  sea  water  is  less 
than  600  feet  deep.  This  forms  the  Grand  Bank,  which 
is  one  of  the  richest  fishing  grounds  in  the  world. 

In  the  interior,  where  there  are  forests,  the  manufac- 
ture of  paper  from  wood  pulp  has  been  undertaken. 
Coal,  iron,  copper,  gold,  and  nickel 
have  been  discovered  on  the  island, 
and  these  deposits  have  been  worked 
to  some  extent. 

The  capital  of  Newfoundland  is 
St.  Johns,  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
island  (Fig.  210). 

Where  the  cold  Labrador  Current 
passes  Newfoundland  and  meets  the 
warm  water  of  the  Gulf  Stream, 
fogs  are  formed,  which  often  make 
travel  in  that  part  of  the  ocean  very 
dangerous.  Great  icebergs  from  the 
arctic  regions  drift  southward  in 
the  Labrador  Current  and  are  often 
seen  by  vessels  passing  from  North 
America  to  Europe.  The  icebergs 
are  frequently  surrounded  by  dense 
fogs,  and  the  captains  of  the  vessels 
must  use  great  care  to  avoid  hitting  them.  Even  large 
ocean  liners  have  been  sunk  by  collisions  with  these 
great  masses  of  floating  ice. 


Fig.  211.   Nine  tenths  of  the  people  of  Labrador 

depend  upon  the  fishing  industry  for  their  living. 

These  men  are  spreading  out  the  cleaned  and 

salted  codfish  to  dry  on  the  wharf 


industry  of  St.  Johns.  In  the  spring  the  fishing  boats  start  for  the  Grand 
Bank,  which  swarms  with  cod  and  other  fish  during  the  summer  months. 
In  the  late  summer  the  fishermen  return  with  their  catch.  The  fish  are  then 
carefully  dried  and  prepared  for  export.  To  what  countries  are  they  sent  ? 

Home  work.  1.  About  how  far  is  it  from  St.  Johns,  Newfound- 
land, to  Liverpool  ?  Use  Plate  B  in  Appendix.  2.  Compare  that 
distance  with  the  distance  from  New  York  to  Liverpool.  3.  Find 
out  what  fraction  of  an  iceberg  appears  above  the  water.  4.  Make 
a  drawing  of  an  iceberg,  in  the  proper  proportion,  showing  how 
much  is  above  and  how  much  is  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Labrador  is  separated  from  Newfoundland  by  the 
Strait  of  Belleisle,  which  is  12  miles  wide.  Politically 
it  is  a  part  of  Newfoundland,  but  local  affairs  are  left 
to  those  who  live  in  Labrador. 

Both  Labrador  and  Newfoundland  have  been  covered 
by  glacier  ice,  so  the  rock  hills  are  rounded  and  smoothed 
off,  and  there  are  many  glacial  moraines  and  bowlders 
on  the  surface.  There  are  long,  deep  fiords  and  rocky 
headlands  along  the  coast. 

About  400  Eskimos  make  up  most  of  the  permanent 
population.  They  live  chiefly  by  fishing  (Fig.  211);  and 
when  there  is  a  poor  season,  there  is 
danger  of  a  famine.  Missionaries 
have  introduced  the  reindeer  as  an 
additional  source  of  food  and  cloth- 
ing for  the  people  of  this  bleak 
coast. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What 
is  the  political  relationship  of  Labrador  to 
Newfoundland?  2.  To  what  common- 
wealth do  both  belong  ?  See  map,  p.  107. 
3.  What  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
people  in  these  countries  ?  4.  What  min- 
erals have  been  found  in  Newfoundland  ? 
5.  Why  should  there  commonly  be  a  fog 
around  an  iceberg? 

6.  Why  should  there  commonly  be  fogs 
off  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  even  if  there 
are  no  icebergs  there  ?  7.  Explain  the  long, 
deep  fiords  on  the  coast  of  Newfoundland 
and  Labrador.  8.  Why  is  the  Grand  Bank 
an  excellent  fishing  ground  ?  It  is  one  of 
the  three  greatest  fishing  grounds  in  the  world.  The  other  two 
are  the  North  Sea  and  the  Japanese  waters  near  Asia.  9.  Why  is 
the  Grand  Bank  a  dangerous  fishing  ground  ? 


Underwood  St  Underwood 


MEXICO 


111 


Fig.  212.    This  is  the  beautiful  cathedral  of  the  City  of  Mexico.   It  was 

built  by  order  of  one  of  the  kings  of  Spain,  and  although  it  was  started  in 

1667,  it  was  not  completed  for  more  than  a  century.    Its  two  great  towers, 

200  feet  in  height,  rise  above  all  the  buildings  of  the  city 


Henrj  G.  Peibody 

Fig.  213.   The  view  southeastward  from  the  cathedral  towers  is  very  beau- 
tiful.   The  city,  with  its  low,  solid  buildings  of  Spanish  architecture, 
spreads  out  over  the  flat-floored  Plateau  of  Mexico.   In  the  distance  are  the 
snow-capped  volcanic  peaks  of  Iztaccihuatl  and  Popocatepetl 


MEXICO 

Mexico  is  a  Spanish-American  country  with  over 
15,000,000  inhabitants.  The  white  people,  who  make  up 
only  a  small  part  of  the  population,  are  chiefly  of  Span- 
ish descent.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  native  Indians 
or  people  of  mixed  descent,  resulting  from  the  marriage 
of  the  white  people  with  the  natives.  Spanish  is  the 
official  language. 

This  is  a  country  of  great  variety.  In  the  plateau  and 
on  the  west  coast  it  is  very  dry,  and  in  the  high  moun- 
tains and  on  the  east  coast  it  is  very  wet ;  there  are  low 
plains,  high  plateaus,  and  high  mountains ;  there  are 
dense  tropical  forests,  grassy  plains,  and  sagebrush 
deserts.  Near  sea  level  it  is  always  very  hot,  at  inter- 
mediate elevations  there  are  temperate  climates,  while 
some  of  the  mountain  tops  are  always  snow-covered. 
Such  geographic  conditions  present  many  opportunities 
for  the  Mexican  people  and  many  interesting  problems 
for  us. 

Gulf  Coastal  Plain.  (Maps  :  between  pp.  117  and  120  ; 
p.  122).  Bordering  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  a  coastal  plain 
which  is  an  extension  of  the  Gulf  Coastal  Plain  that  we 
studied  in  the  United  States.  In  Yucatan  the  plain 
widens  and  takes  in  most  of  that  peninsula. 

Eastern  Sierra  Madre.  Rising  abruptly  from  the  western 
margin  of  the  Gulf  Coastal  Plain  is  the  Eastern  Sierra 
Madre,  a  young  and  rugged  mountain  system  which  is  a 
continuation  southward  of  our  Rocky  Mountains.  These 
mountains  contain  rich  deposits  of  minerals.  Their  east- 
ern slopes  are  clothed  with  dense  tropical  vegetation. 


Mexican  Plateau.  Traveling  westward,  we  cross  the 
Mexican  Plateau,  a  region  of  broad,  flat  areas  and  low 
mountain  ranges.  All  but  the  southern  portion  of  this 
plateau  is  a  semidesert,  containing  many  extremely  dry 
places.  In  the  north  is  a  region  of  inland  drainage  like 
that  in  our  Great  Basin  region  of  the  United  States, 
where  the  streams  descending  from  the  mountains  sink 
into  the  sandy  soil  or  flow  into  salt  lakes. 

Western  Sierra  Madre  and  Sonoran  Desert.  Moving 
still  farther  west,  we  come  to  the  Western  Sierra  Madre, 
which  is  also  a  young,  rugged  mountain  system.  These 
mountains  contain  deposits  of  very  valuable  ores.  On 
the  eastern  slopes,  toward  which  the  moisture-laden 
winds  blow,  they  receive  a  heavy  rainfall ;  but  the  rain 
clouds  cannot  pass  over  the  summits,  and  on  the  western 
side  the  land  is  dry.  The  Sonoran  Desert  consists  of  a 
foothill  belt  and  a  narrow  coastal  plain  bordering  the 
Gulf  of  California. 

Lower  California  is  a  part  of  Mexico.  It  is  a  rugged 
land  made  by  the  continuation  southward  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  Ranges  of  California.    Most  of  it  is  a  desert. 

High  volcanic  peaks.  A  range  of  lofty,  snow-clad, 
volcanic  peaks  bounds  the  Plateau  of  Mexico  on  the 
south.  The  three  highest  peaks  of  this  range  are  Ori- 
zaba, the  Star  Mountain ;  Popocatepetl,  or  Smoking 
Mountain ;  Iztaccihuatl,  or  WJiite  Woman  (Fig.  213). 

Rainfall.  Most  of  Mexico  is  in  the  belt  of  the  north- 
east trade  winds.  As  those  winds  blow  toward  the  equa- 
tor they  become  warmer  and  warmer,  and  so  tend  to 
take  up  moisture.  In  blowing  over  water  surfaces  they 
may  become  very  moist,  but  unless  they  are  forced  to  rise 


112 


MEXICO 


Fig.  214.  These  Mexican  women  are  making  the 

beautiful  drawn  work  for  which  their  country  is 

famous.   Where  does  their  thread  come  from  ? 


Fig.  215.  These  men  are  water  peddlers  in  the 

City  of  Mexico.  Notice  the  size  of  their  water  jars 

and  the  curious  way  in  which  they  are  carried 


Fig.  216.   This  ship  is  being  loaded  with  mahog- 
any logs  at  a  Mexican  port.   Where  will  these 
logs  be  sent,  and  what  will  they  be  used  for  ? 


or  some  cold  object  intervenes,  no  rain  will  fall.    Both         Within  a  few  hours  one  may  pass  by  rail  from  sea 
ranges  of  the  Sierra  Madre  force  these  winds  to  rise,  and     level,  where  the  heat  is  very  oppressive,  up  through  the 


so  act  as  condensers  ;  rain  falls  abundantly  on  their  wind- 
ward slopes.  The  streams  from  the  western  mountains 
are  used  to  irrigate  portions  of  the  dry  plateau  region. 
The  southern  portions  of  Mexico  receive  rains  in  summer, 
when  the  sun  appears  to  come  northward. 

Zones  of  altitude.  Because  of  the  great  differences  in 
elevation  in  Mexico,  there  are  three  distinct  zones  which 
have  special  Spanish  names.  The  tierra  caliente,  or  hot 
land,  extends  from  sea  level  up  to  3000  feet.   The  tem- 


temperate  zone  and  into  the  cold  zone  in  the  high  moun- 
tains. The  people  of  Mexico  have  the  products  of  the 
torrid,  warm-temperate,  and  cool-temperate  zones  near 
at  hand. 

Natural  resources.  Mexico  is  very  rich  in  natural 
resources.  The  mineral  wealth  consists  of  silver,  gold, 
copper,  lead,  and  many  other  metals.  Mexico  is  also  fortu- 
nate in  having  a  large  supply  of  petroleum  and  some  ex- 
cellent water-power  sites  (Fig.  217).    The  fertile  lands 


perature  in  this  zone  varies  from  75  to  80  degrees,  though     in  the  lowlands  and  on  portions  of  the  plateau  furnish 


it  sometimes  rises  to  100  or  105.  The  winters  are  warm, 
but  the  summers  are  hot.  The  eastern  coastal  plain  of 
Mexico  and  a  part  of  the  adjoining  mountain  slope  are  in- 
cluded in  this  zone.  It  is  a  land  of  rich  foliage,  beautiful 
flowers,  and  many  fruit  trees.  Along  the  coast  are  man- 
grove swamps,  and  farther  inland  there  are  coconut  palms, 
mahogany  trees,  and  rubber  trees.  In  the  forests  there 
are  gorgeously  colored  birds  and  butterflies,  monkeys, 


foods,  and  the  forests  yield  ebony,  mahogany  (Fig.  216), 
and  rubber.    There  are  also  extensive  grazing  lands. 

Millions  of  dollars  have  been  invested  in  the  natural 
resources  of  Mexico  by  people  in  the  United  States. 

Occupations.  Mining  produces  the  greatest  wealth  of 
the  country  (Fig.  219),  but  agriculture  is  the  occupation 
which  most  of  the  people  must  follow  in  order  to  earn  a 
living  (Fig.  218).   The  grasslands  on  the  plateau  support 


and  prowling  beasts  that  make  their  homes  in  jungles,     millions  of  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  and  goats.    Leather  has 


The  next  zone,  extending  up  to 
5000  or  7000  feet,  is  called  tierra 
templada,  or  temperate  land.  Here 
the  thermometer  will  reach  60  or  70 
degrees,  the  temperature  many  peo- 
ple enjoy  in  their  homes  during  the 
winter.  The  Mexicans  like  to  call 
this  the  land  of  "  perpetual  spring." 
This  zone  includes  part  of  the  moun- 
tain slopes  and  some  of  the  great 
plateau.  The  third  zone,  called  tierra 
fria,  or  cold  land,  is  still  higher. 
Evergreens  and  some  deciduous  trees 
grow  here.  The  high  mountain  tops 
are  very  cold,  and  they  rise  above 
the  timber  line. 


)  Keystone  View  Co. 

Fig.  217.  The  great  Juanacatlan  Falls  of  the 
Santiago  River  are  often  called  the  "Niagara  of 
Mexico."  Hydroelectric  power  is  developed  here 
for  manufacturing  and  for  use  at  Guadalajara, 
twenty  miles  away 


long  been  one  of  the  chief  products 
of  this  country,  and  the  Mexicans 
are  experts  at  ornamenting  the  arti- 
cles made  from  it. 

The  great  mass  of  laboring  people, 
who  are  chiefly  Indians  and  half- 
breeds,  are  called  peons.  They  work 
for  very  small  wages  in  the  mines, 
in  the  fields,  and  on  the  plains  where 
they  care  for  stock.  They  are  learn- 
ing to  work  in  some  of  the  factories. 

Home  work.  1.  On  an  outline  map  of 
Mexico  locate  and  name  the  chief  natural 
regions,  the  capital,  and  two  seaports. 
2.  Read  about  the  life  of  the  peons.  3.  What 
Spanish  explorers  reached  Mexico  ? 


MEXICO 


113 


Cities.  Tampico  and  Vera  Cruz  have  the  best  of  the  poor 
harbors  along  the  Gulf  coast.  The  waters  are  shallow, 
with  offshore  bars  and  reefs.  Commerce  with  the  United 
States  and  Europe  is  carried  on  through  these  ports.  See 
map  betioeen  pages  117  and  120.  Tampico  has  been  helped 
by  the  development  of  oil  wells  in  Mexico.  Vera  Cruz 
has  been  the  leading  port  since  the  days  of  Cortez. 

The  City  of  Mexico,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  is  situ- 
ated at  the  southern  end  of  the  Mexican  Plateau  and  is 
nearly  surrounded  by  high  mountains  (Figs.  212,  213). 
Puebla  is  near  the  City  of  Mexico,  and  because  of  water- 
power  and  a  supply  of  raw  materials  it  has  become  a 
center  for  the  manufacture  of  cotton.  Guadalajara,  San 
Luis  Potosi,  and  Monterey  are  important  inland  cities,  and 
Mazatlan  is  the  chief  seaport  on  the  west  coast. 

In  the  center  of  a  Mexican  city  is  a  plaza,  or  open 
park,  about  which  many  of  the  most  important  build- 
ings are  placed.  At  one  side  is  a  cathedral ;  opposite 
the  cathedral  may  be  a  national  or  city  bank  and  other 
public  buildings.  The  chief  shops  and  places  of  amuse- 
ment are  built  on  the  edge  of  the  plaza  whenever  this 
is  possible,  and  the  public  markets  are  near  by. 

A  city  home  is  usually  built  around  a  patio,  or  central 
garden,  which  the  family  enjoys  in  private.  Instead  of 
having  a  front  yard,  as  many  homes  in  the  cities  of  the 
United  States  have,  the  houses  in  Spanish  cities  are 
built  out  to  the  sidewalks  and  have  the  yard  hidden 
from  the  street. 

Government.  The  thirty-one  states  and  territories  in 
Mexico  are  united  to  form  a  federal  republic,  with  a 
constitution  modeled  after  that  of  the  United  States. 
The  states  have  a  degree  of  local  self-government,  and 
they  unite  in  the  election  of  a  president  and  other 
national  officers,  as  we  do.  The  great  mass  of  poor, 
ignorant,  uneducated  peons,  however,  make  it  difficult 
to  conduct  public  affairs  satisfactorily.  In  a  free  country 
it  is  important  that  all  citizens  become  well  educated. 

Future.  The  remarkable  wealth  of  natural  resources 
may  bring  pros- 
perity to  Mexico. 
Mining  should  be 
promoted  and  agri- 
culture extended 
by  means  of  irri- 
gation. Probably 
Mexico  will  never 
become  an  indus- 
trial nation,  be- 
cause- the  people 
show  little  abil- 
ity in  mechanical 
arts  or  invention. 


Wrm¥mm 


Fig.  219.  This  is  a  modern  copper-smelting  plant  in  Mexico.  The  rich  copper  ore  is  mined 
near  by  and  then  brought  to  the  smelting  works,  where  the  metal  is  separated  from  the  rock. 
The  production  of  copper  is  a  very  important  industry  in  Mexico  and  is  carried  on  mostly  by 
American  and  European  companies.    In  what  parts  of  Mexico  is  copper  found  ?     What  other 

metals  does  Mexico  produce  ? 


Fig.  218.   Here  are  the  coffee-drying  yards  on  a  Mexican  plantation.    The 

coffee  beans  are  spread  out  to  dry  and  are  then  raked  up  into  piles  ready 

to  be  put  into  bags  for  shipment.   What  other  products  do  the  Mexican 

planters  and  farmers  grow  ?  What  products  are  exported  ? 

More  well-trained  white  people  are  needed  to  develop 
the  natural  resources,  and  living  and  working  con- 
ditions for  the  laboring  classes  must  be  improved. 
Higher  standards  of  education  should  be  established, 
and  arrangements  should  be  made  so  that  a  larger 
number  of  Mexicans  may  own  homes  and  ranch  lands. 
A  strong  and  just  government  must  be  maintained. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  European  nation  early 
became  interested  in  Mexico?  2.  What  is  the  official  language 
of  Mexico  ?  3.  What  natural  regions  in  the  United  States  extend 
southward  into  Mexico  ? 

4.  What  are  the  prevailing  winds  of  Mexico  ?  5.  Where  is  the 
rainfall  heavy  ?  Why  ?  6.  Why  is  the  Mexican  Plateau  dry  ? 
7.  Explain  the  Sonoran  Desert.  8.  What  reasons  are  there  for 
thinking  of  the  mountains  as  young  ? 

9.  Explain  and  describe  the  zones  in  altitude.  10.  What  are 
the  chief  natural  resources  of  Mexico  ?  11.  Name  the  capital  and 
chief  seaports.  12.  Describe  the  plaza  of  a  Mexican  city  and  the 
patio  of  a  Mexican  home. 

13.  Name  the  mountain  ranges  in  Mexico.     14.  Locate  the 

three  highest  moun- 
tain peaks.  Find  the 
elevation  of  these 
peaks  in  the  Appen- 
dix. 15.  Explain  how 
it  is  possible  for  the 
people  of  Mexico  to 
have  both  torrid-zone 
and  temperate-zone 
products  near  at  hand. 
16.  Account  for  the 
lack  of  prosperity  in 
Mexico.  17.  What 
remedies  can  you 
suggest  for  this  lack 
of  prosperity  ? 


114 


CENTRAL  AMERICA 


CourtcBj  of  the  Pan  American  Union 

Fig.  220.   This  is  a  view  on  a  banana  plantation  in  Costa  Rica.  The  men 

have  cut  the  bunches  of  bananas  from  the  plants  and  are  loading  them  upon 

the  ponies'  backs.   The  ponies  will  carry  them  to  the  freight  cars  in  which 

they  will  be  sent  to  the  place  of  export 

CENTRAL  AMERICA 

Between  Mexico  and  South  America  are  the  six  re- 
publics of  Guatemala,  Honduras,  Salvador,  Nicaragua, 
Costa  Rica,  and  Panama.  Five  of  these  countries  extend 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  across  the  narrow  neck 
of  land  which  is  called  Central  America.  Salvador,  how- 
ever, is  entirely  on  the  Pacific  side. 

Besides  the  six  republics  there  is  British  Honduras, 
the  only  European  possession  in  this  part  of  North 
America.  It  is  a  small,  mountainous  country  located 
on  the  Gulf  of  Honduras,  south  of  Yucatan. 

The  young,  rugged  mountains  that  border  the  Pacific 
Ocean  in  North  America  continue  through  Central 
America  and  South  America.    On  the  east,  in  Central 


America,  there  is  a  very  narrow  coastal  plain,  but  on 
the  west  the  mountains  come  to  the  seashore. 

Climate.  Central  America  lies  between  the  tropic  of 
Cancer  and  the  equator,  and  therefore  the  winters  are 
almost  as  hot  as  the  summers.  The  heaviest  rainfall 
comes  during  the  summer,  and  more  rain  falls  on  the 
east  coast  than  on  the  west  coast,  because  the  prevailing 
winds  are  the  northeast  trades.  See  map  on  page  124. 
At  Colon,  on  the  east  coast,  there  is  a  yearly  rainfall  of 
127  inches,  and  at  Greytown  the  rainfall  is  259  inches  a 


D  Publishers'  Photo  Serriae,  Inc. 

Fig.  221.  These  oxcarts  are  used  a  great  deal  in  Costa  Rica  and  other 
Central  American  countries.  Notice  the  heavy  yokes  on  the  oxen,  the  solid 
wooden  wheels,  and  the  rude  framework  which  supports  the  canopy.  What 
products  do  you  suppose  are  hauled  in  these  carts?  What  are  the  canopies  for? 


Fig.  222.  The  docks  at  Limon  have  steam  conveyors  which  take  the  bananas 

right  from  the  cars  to  the  holds  of  the  vessels.   The  conveyor  is  an  endless 

chain  of  canvas  pockets.    Each  pocket  holds  one  bunch  of  bananas.    To 

what  countries  are  the  bananas  of  Costa  Rica  sent  ? 

year.  Such  abundant  rainfall  in  a  tropical  region  means 
dense  forests,  where  there  are  sure  to  be  gorgeously  col- 
ored birds,  many  insects,  and  the  germs  of  dangerous 
diseases. 

Central  America,  like  Mexico,  has  three  zones  of  alti- 
tude, —  tierra  caliente  (hot  land),  tierra  templada  (tem- 
perate land),  and  tierra  fria  (cold  land)  (p.  112). 

Products.  On  the  lowlands  and  in  the  valleys  among 
the  mountains  immense  quantities  of  bananas  are  raised 
(Figs.  220,  222).  Tobacco  and  coffee  grow  on  the  hill 
slopes,  and  cattle,  horses,  and  hogs  are  raised.  In  the 
mountains  gold  and  silver  are  mined  (Fig.  225) ;  these 
are  exported  to  Europe  and  the  United  States.  The 
forests  are  rich  in  mahogany. 

People.  The  white  people  in  these  countries  are  of 
Spanish  descent,  and  the  Spanish  language  is  spoken 
almost  entirely.  In  addition  to  the  native  Indians  there 
are  many  negroes  in  these  countries  (Fig.  223).  Many 
people  from  the  United  States  have  become  interested 
in  developing  the  coastal  lowlands  and  have  gone  there 
to  live.  In  the  interior  the  Spanish-American  homes  and 
customs  still  prevail. 


WEST  INDIES 


115 


The  trade  of  Central  America  is  now  largely  with,  the 
United  States.  The  countries  border  the  "  American 
Mediterranean,"  and  their  development  is  of  immediate 
interest  to  the  people  in  North  and  South  America. 
They  produce  many  useful  articles  and  foods  which  we 
cannot  secure  in  our  own  country. 

Such  hot,  moist  lands  are  not  adapted  to  very  active 
work.  Nowhere  in  the  world  do  we  find  much  manu- 
facturing in  the  tropics.  The  imports  as  shown  on  the 
map  between  pages  117  and  120  indicate  clearly  that  the 
people  send  to  the  countries  in  the  temperate  zones  for 
cotton  goods,  machinery,  and  other  articles  made  in  fac- 
tories. Wheat  cannot  be  raised  in  Central  America,  and 
wheat  foods  and  flour  must  therefore  be  imported. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Name  the  countries  in 
Central  America.  2.  Why  is  the  heavier  rainfall  on  the  northeast 
of  the  mountains  ?  3.  What  foreign  language  should  you  find 
most  useful  in  traveling  in  the  -countries  of  Central  America  ? 

4.  What  kinds  of  food  are  exported  ?  5.  What  are  the  chief 
imports  ?    6.  With  what  country  is  most  of  the  trade  ?  7.  In  what 


Fig.  223.   The  natives  of  Guatemala  build  their  houses  by  first  putting  up 

a  few  columns  made  of  rough  stones  plastered  together,  and  then  filling  the 

spaces  between  with  thin  sticks  of  wood.    The  high,  pointed  roofs  are 

thatched  with  straw.   What  do  these  people  do  for  their  living  ? 

part  is  the  influence  of  the  United  States  most  clearly  shown '.' 
8.  To  what  part  of  Central  America  should  you  go  to  see  the 
Spanish  or  Spanish-American  type  of  home  and  life  ? 

Home  work.   1.  Read  about  volcanoes  in  a  good  reference  book. 


WEST  INDIES 

The  West  Indian  Islands  are  arranged  in  a  curve  from 
the  peninsula  of  Yucatan  eastward  and  then  southward 
to  the  northern  coast  of  Venezuela.  They  are  the  tops 
of  a  young  and  rugged  chain  of  mountains.  The  water 
about  them  is  20,000  feet  deep  in  some  places;  and  if 
the  sea  were  withdrawn,  there  would  be,  in  place  of 


C'uuneaj  of  ibe  Pan  American  Union 

Fig.  224.   Pineapples  are  grown  very  widely  in  the 

western  part  of  Cuba.   One  crop  can  be  raised  each 

year,  and  each  plant  bears  one  apple.  What  other 

fruits  does  Cuba  raise  ? 


the  islands,  one 
of  the  greatest 
systems  of  moun- 
tains to  be  found 
in  the  world. 

Bordering  the 
shores  of  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico, 
and  in  places  on 
the  other  islands, 
there  are  coastal 
lowlands,  but  for 
the  most  part  the 
West  Indies  are 
distinctly  moun- 
tainous. Cuba,  Jamaica,  Haiti,  and  Porto  Rico  are  called 
the  Greater  Antilles.  The  Leeward  Islands,  the  Wind- 
ward Islands,  and  the  other  small  islands  which  form 
the  rest  of  the  curve  are  called  the  Lesser  Antilles.  The 
Bahamas  are  a  low  group  of  coral  islands  north  of  Cuba. 
See  map  between  pages  117  and  120. 

The  West  Indies  form  the  northeastern  margin  of  the 
"American  Mediterranean  "  and  are  convenient  stopping 
places  for  vessels  passing  from  Europe  or  the  United 
States  through  the  Panama  Canal  to  Pacific  coast  ports. 
The  passageways  between  the  islands  are  rapidly  be- 
coming great  thoroughfares  for  modern  traffic,  and  the 
islands  prove  convenient  coaling  stations  for  the  various 
navies  of  the  world. 

Climate.  Most  of  the  West  Indies  lie  between  the 
tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  equator.  The  temperatures  are 
therefore  hot  during  the  summer  and  warm  during  the 
winter.  The  latitude  of  these  islands  brings  them  into 
the  belt  of  the  moisture-laden  northeast  trade  winds. 


Courtesy  of  tbe  Pan  American  Union 


Fig.  225.  These  boys  are  sorting  ore  at  the  Rosario  mine  in  Honduras.  This 
mine  is  located  near  Tegucigalpa,  and  has  been  worked  continuously  for 
thirty  years.  It  has  produced  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  gold  and  silver. 
What  are  the  other  important  products  of  Honduras  besides  its  mineral  ores  ? 


116 


WEST  INDIES 


Fig.  226.    This  is  a  sugar-cane  field  in  Cuba.    The  cane  grows  in  single 

stalks  and  when  full  grown  it  stands  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  high.   As 

soon  as  it  ripens,  the  cane  is  cut  by  hand,  stripped  of  its  leaves,  loaded  upon 

carts,  and  hauled  to  the  sugar  mills  to  be  crushed 


Publishers'  Pboto  Service,  Inn. 

Fig.  227.   Here  the  cane  is  passing  up  a  belt  conveyor  into  the  mill,  where  it 

is  crushed  between  great  rollers  to  squeeze  out  the  juice.   Then  the  juice  is 

crystallized,  and  the  raw  sugar  is  ready  for  export.    Cuba  is  the  world's 

largest  exporter  of  sugar.    What  countries  buy  Cuba's  sugar  ? 


The  southwest,  or  leeward,  sides  of  the  ranges  are  much 
drier  than  the  northeast  sides.  Where  there  is  abundant 
rainfall,  tropical  vegetation  grows  luxuriantly,  and  such 
fruits  as  pineapples,  coconuts,  and  bananas  are  grown. 

Products.  On  the  lowlands  bordering  the  coast  there 
are  large  sugar  and  tobacco  plantations.  Coffee  is  also 
grown  on  these  islands.  The  agricultural  products  are 
exchanged  for  manufactured  goods  made  in  the  United 
States  and  Europe.    See  map  betiveen  pages  117  and  120. 

The  royal  palm,  which  grows  luxuriantly  in  the  W^est 
Indies,  is  a  valuable  tree  to  the  native  people.  It  reaches 
a  height  of  from  60  to  80  feet  and  is  covered  with  great 
green  leaves.  A  medicine  is  distilled  from  the  roots,  the 
trunks  are  xised  as  timber  for  building  houses  and  furni- 
ture, and  the  leaves  are  often  used  to  thatch  houses. 
The  stems  of  the  leaves  are  made  into  baskets ;  hats 
and  a  certain  kind  of  cloth  are  woven  from  the  fibers 
of  the  leaves.  The  seeds  are  excellent  for  fattening 
hogs,  and  the  bud  found  at  the  top  of  the  tree  is  eaten 
as  a  vegetable. 

Home  work.    Head  about  the  uses  of  other  kinds  of  palm  trees. 


Cuba  is  the  largest  of  the  West  Indies,  and  is  an  in- 
dependent republic.  Through  the  center  of  the  island 
is  a  mountain  range,  and  the  plantations  are  near  the 
coasts.  Habana,  the  capital  and  chief  city,  is  located  on 
an  excellent  harbor  (Fig.  228),  and  from  that  port  ves- 
sels leave  for  Europe  and  the  United  States  (Fig.  230). 
Santiago  also  has  a  good  harbor.  It  is  situated  on  the 
south  side  of  the  island,  near  the  eastern  end.  Iron  has 
been  discovered  near  by,  and  this  is  shipped  to  the 
United  States. 

The  chief  products  of  Cuba  are  sugar  (Figs.  226,  227) 
and  tobacco.  Nearly  half  of  the  cultivated  land  is  planted 
with  sugar  cane.  More  tobacco  is  raised  in  Cuba  than 
in  any  other  of  the  West  Indian  islands.  The  tobacco 
raised  here  is  grown  on  the  sheltered  southern  slopes  of 
the  mountain  ranges  and  is  valued  especially  for  its  fine 
flavor.  Large  numbers  of  cattle,  horses,  and  mules  are 
also  raised  in  Cuba.  The  forests  contain  valuable  supplies 
of  mahogany  and  cedar.  The  cedar  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cigar  boxes,  which  are  filled  at  Habana  with 
cigars  made  from  the  tobacco  grown  on  the  island. 


Publishers'  Photo  Service,  I  bo. 


Fig.  228.  This  is  part  of  the  city  of  Habana  as  it  looks  from  the  Cabanas 
fortress.  The  narrow  strait  in  the  foreground  leads  into  the  harbor.  Habana 
is  the  capital  and  chief  port  of  Cuba.  More  merchandise  enters  and  leaves 
Habana  than  any  port  of  the  United  States  except  New  York.   When  Cuba 


was  taken  by  the  United  States  in  1899,  Habana  was  a  dirty,  unhealthful 
city,  because  the  Spaniards  had  no  care  for  sanitation.  The  Americans 
cleaned  the  city  thoroughly,  and  to-day  it  is  a  big  modern  port,  with  large, 
fine  buildings,  good  streets,  and  excellent  docks.  Locate  Habana  on  your  map 


WEST  INDIES 


117 


MAP  STUDIES  — MEXICO,  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  AND 
THE  WEST  INDIES  (Between  Pages  117  and  120) 

1.  With  what  countries  is  the  chief  commerce  of  Mexico  ? 
2.  Is  Mexico  noted  for  its  industrial  life  or  for  its  mining  and 
agricultural  life  ?  3.  What  climate  should  we  expect  to  find 
in  countries  whose  products  include  sugar,  cotton,  bananas, 
coffee,  and  rubber  ? 

4.  What  climatic  factors  prevent  many  of  the  Mexican 
people  from  being  very  industrious  ?  5.  What  is  the  chief 
kind  of  cloth  used  by  the  Mexicans  ?  6.  Why  do  they  not 
buy  more  woolen  clothes  ?  7.  What  are  the  chief  mineral 
resources  of  Mexico? 

8.  What  kinds  of  fuel  are  found  in  Mexico  ?  9.  Name  the 
two  most  important  seaports.  10.  In  what  kind  of  region  is 
the  capital  of  Mexico  located,  —  mountain,  plain,  or  plateau  ? 
11.  Name  and  locate  seven  other  important  cities  in  the  in- 
terior of  Mexico. 

12.  From  what  ports  in  Central  America  do  great  quanti- 
ties of  bananas  come  ?  13.  What  other  food  supplies  come  to 
the  United  States  from  Central  America?  14.  What  Euro- 
pean nation  possesses  land  in  Central  America?    15.  What 


©  Publishers'  Photo  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  229.   Here  is  an  oxcart  such  as  many  Cubans  use  on  their  farms.   This 

farmer  raises  sisal  hemp,  which  you  can  see  beyond  the  oxen.    The  sisal 

looks  like  a  century  plant,  and  its  fiber  is  used  to  make  rope  and  twine. 

It  is  a  cheaper  rival  of  Manila  hemp 

countries  of  Central  America  extend  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
or  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  ?  16.  What  are  the 
chief  food  supplies  that  we  receive  from  the  West  Indies  ? 
17.  What  supplies  go  from  these  islands  to  Europe? 

18.  Do  the  people  of  the  West  Indies  do  most  of  their 
own  manufacturing,  or  do  they  import  manufactured  goods  ? 
19.  Which  is  the  largest  of  the  West  Indies?  20.  Which  of 
these  islands  belong  to  the  United  States?  21.  What  other 
countries  have  possessions  among  these  islands  ? 

22.  What  are  the  principal  seaports  of  the  West  Indies  ? 

23.  What  greatocean  current  passes  betweenCuba  and  Florida? 

24.  Which  side  of  the  islands  is  the  better  watered?  See  map 
on  page  124.    25.  What  winds  bring  the  rains  ? 

26.  What  large  city  in  Pennsylvania  is  in  about  the  same 
longitude  as  the  city  of  Panama?  27.  What  large  cities  in 
the  United  States  are  about  as  far  west  from  Greenwich, 
England,  as  the  city  of  Guatemala?  28.  Which  is  farther 
from  the  equator,  —  San  Juan  in  Porto  Rico  or  Bombay  in 
India?  29.  What  capital  city  in  South  America  is  almost 
directly  south  of  New  York  ? 


Courtesj  of  the  Pan  American  Union 


Fig.  230.    Ships  from  all  over  the  world  come  to  Habana,  and  as  many  as 

a  thousand  of  them  can  anchor  in  the  harbor  at  one  time.   The  docks  are 

always  crowded  and  busy.   The  carts  in  this  picture  are  loaded  with  Cuban 

products  for  export.   Name  some  of  these  products 

Jamaica  is  a  British  possession.  Most  of  the  natives 
are  negroes,  but  there  are  some  English,  some  Chinese, 
and  some  Hindus  living  on  the  island.  The  exports 
are  like  those  from  many  of  the  other  tropical  countries, 
—  bananas,  coconuts,  sugar,  and  coffee,  —  and  here,  as 
in  other  tropical  countries,  cotton  goods  and  flour  must 
be  imported  from  the  northern  countries.  Most  of  the 
trade  is  now  with  the  United  States. 

The  Bahamas  belong  to  Great  Britain.  About  twenty 
of  these  islands  are  inhabited,  but  there  are  many 
that  are  uninhabited.  In  the  waters  near  the  islands 
sponges  and  turtles  are  obtained.  On  the  land  pine- 
apples, oranges,  and  large  quantities  of  the  sisal  plant, 
valuable  for  fiber,  are  raised.  Some  of  the  pineapples 
are  canned  for  export.  Many  of  the  native  people  are 
skillful  in  weaving  the  sisal  fiber  and  in  making 
tortoise-shell  goods  from  the  shells  of  the  turtles. 


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distance  is  the  broad,  sheltered  harbor.  Kingston  was  destroyed  by  a  terrible 
earthquake  in  1907,  but  it  has  been  rebuilt  and  is  a  busy,  prosperous  city. 
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Fig.  232.   This  is  a  view  of  Port  au  Prince,  the  capital  of  the  Republic  of 

Haiti.   It  is  located  at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  on  the  western  side  of  the 

island  and  is  the  chief  port  and  commercial  center  of  the  republic.  What 

are  its  exports  and  imports  ? 

Haiti.  The  island  of  Haiti  is  divided  into  two  negro 
republics.  The  Dominican  Republic,  in  the  east,  is  a 
Spanish-speaking  country,  with  Santo  Domingo  as  its 
chief  seaport ;  the  Republic  of  Haiti,  in  the  west  end  of 
the  island,  is  a  French-speaking  country ;  Port  au  Prince 
is  its  chief  city  and  port  (Fig.  232).  These  countries 
have  suffered  much  from  misgovernment.  The  principal 
occupation  of  the  people  in  these  two  republics  is  agri- 
culture. Haiti  raises  coffee  of  excellent  quality  for  export. 
Other  products  are  cacao,  tobacco,  and  cotton,  but  none 
of  them  are  raised  in  large  enough  quantities  to  be 
important  commercially. 

Home  work.  1.  Find  out  how  sponges  a,re  obtained  and  prepared 
for  the  market.   2.  Find  out  what  you  can  about  the  Gulf  Stream. 


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TRINIDAD 

This  island  is  a  British  possession  located  just  off  the 
coast  of  Venezuela.  The  moist,  warm,  tropical  climate  is 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  sugar,  coconuts,  and  the  cacao 
tree.  The  seeds  of  the  cacao  tree  are  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  cocoa  and  chocolate,  and  the  oil  in  the  seed  is 
called  cocoa  butter  (Fig.  233). 

Trinidad  is,  however,  remarkable  for  a  very  unusual 
lake.     It  is  a  lake  of  nearly  solid  asphalt.     A  crust 


Fig.  233.    Trinidad  has  many  cacao  plantations.   These  boys  are  plantation 

hands  at  work  husking  cacao  pods.  They  cut  open  the  pods  with  their  long, 

sharp  knives,  and  scrape  out  the  seeds,  which  are  allowed  to  ferment  for  a 

while  and  are  then  dried  in  the  sun.   What  other  countries  raise  cacao  ? 


Fig.  234.   These  men  are  digging  asphalt  from  the  great  pitch  lake  on  the 

island  of  Trinidad.   The  lake  covers  90  acres  and  is  at  least  100  feet  deep. 

Its  surface  is  covered  with  a  crust  of  asphalt ;  but  when  this  is  removed, 

the  liquid  pitch  oozes  out.   Of  what  use  is  asphalt  ? 

forms  on  the  asphalt,  which  is  broken  up  and  shipped  to 
many  countries  of  the  world,  where  it  is  used  in  paving 
streets  (Fig.  234). 

BERMUDA  ISLANDS 

This  group  of  low  coral  islands  is  located  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean,  about  600  miles  southeast  from  New  York. 
They  are  British  possessions  and  are  used  as  a  naval 
station.  Corals  grow  here  in  the  warm,  shallow  sea 
water  on  a  platform  which  is  probably  part  of  an 
ancient  volcano  cut  off  a  little  below  sea  level  by  wave 
action.  The  coral  skeletons  have  been  broken  by  the 
waves  and  ground  into  sands,  and  at  a  time  when  the  sea 
water  was  lower,  such  coral  sands  were  blown  into  dunes. 

The  soil  of  the  Bermuda  Islands  is  not  very  fertile, 
but  it  is  used  for  gardening  the  year  round.  Fresh  vege- 
tables from  Bermuda  are  supplied  to  the  United  States 
markets  during  the  northern  winter  season. 

These  islands  are  a  very  attractive  winter  resort.  On 
days  when  the  sea  is  calm  one  may  go  out  in  a  glass- 
bottomed  boat  and  see  the  living  corals.  Their  homes 
appear  like  a  fairyland,  and  swimming  in  and  out  among 
the  delicate  coral  forms  there  are  hundreds  of  the  bril- 
liantly colored  fish  that  also  like  to  live  in  warm  waters. 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


121 


factories  and  for  making  furniture 
and  many  other  useful  articles. 

Alaska,  British  Columbia,  our 
western  states,  Mexico,  and  Cen- 
tral America  have  all  benefited 
from  the  rich  stores  of  gold,  cop- 
per, silver,  lead,  zinc,  and  many 
other  minerals  near  the  western 
margin  of  the  continent  (Fig.  235). 
The  water-power  in  many  parts 
of  North  America  suggests  great 
possibilities  for  the  future. 

Farming  and  grazing  lands.  All 
the  lowlands  except  those  in  the 
extreme  northern  latitudes  are 
agricultural  lands  (Fig.  236).  A 
nation  in  the  temperate  zone, 
with  a  large,  well-watered  plain 
where  there  are  fertile  soils,  is 
fortunate.  Both  Canada  and  the 
United  States  have  broad  ex- 
panses of  such  fertile  lands. 
Mexico  and  Central  America  are  less  fortunate. 

Most  of  the  nations  in  North  America  have  excellent 
Now  that  we  have  traveled  into  the  various  portions     pasture  lands.    The  irrigation  of  semiarid  lands  is  open- 
of  North  America  and  studied  the  life  in  each  nation,     ing  up  vast  areas  to  settlement  and  making  it  possible 
we  can  make  a  more  intelligent  study  of  the  continent     for  the  people  to  raise  larger  and  larger  supplies  of  food, 
as  a  whole.    This  will  be  in  some  ways  a  summary.  Life  in  the  Far  North.   The  extreme  northern  parts  of 

Physical  features.  The  map  on  page  122  shows  the  North  America  are  in  the  north  frigid  zone,  and  most 
arrangement  of  the  natural  regions.  All  of  the  old,  of  the  people  who  live  there  are  Eskimos.  Life  is  very 
worn-down  mountains  are  in  the  eastern  section.  In  difficult  in  this  cold  region,  where  food  is  often  scarce 
the  west  there  are  young,  rugged  mountains  and  high  (Fig.  237).  These  people  must  depend  largely  upon  game 
plateaus.    Along  the  Atlantic  coast  in  the  United  States     and  fish  for  their  food,  but  some  of  them  are  fortunate 


Problems  and  review  questions.   1.  If 

the  sea  waters  were  withdrawn,  what 
would  the  West  Indies  appear  to  be  ? 
2.  What  is  the  origin  of  most  of  the 
West  Indies  ?  3.  How  were  the  Bahama 
Islands  made  ?  4.  What  winds  bring 
rain  to  these  islands  ?  5.  What  foods 
do  we  secure  from  the  West  Indies  ? 
6.  What  uses  are  made  of  the  royal 
palm  ? 

7.  Which  of  the  West  Indies  belong 
to  the  United  States  ?  8.  What  lan- 
guage is  most  commonly  spoken  in  these 
islands  ?  9.  What  nations  now  have 
possessions  among  them  ?  10.  For 
what  is  the  island  of  Trinidad  most 
famous  ? 

11.  How  far  are  the  Bermuda  Islands 
from  New  York  ?  12.  To  what  country 
do  they  belong  ?  13.  Of  what  value  are 
they  to  that  country  ?  14.  Why  is  it 
possible  to  raise  vegetables  the  year 
round  in  the  Bermuda  Islands  ?  15.  At 
what  season  of  the  year  should  you 
most  enjoy  visiting  Bermuda  ?    Why  ? 


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Fig.  235.  Telluride,  Colorado,  is  typical  of  the  many  pros- 
perous mining  towns  which  have  grown  up  in  the  young, 
rugged  mountains  of  western  North  America  because  of  the 
wealth  of  mineral  ores  which  they  contain.  Can  you  describe 
the  life  of  the  people  here  ? 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


and  Mexico,  through  the  great  interior  of  the  continent, 
and  on  a  portion  of  the  Arctic  coast,  there  are  lowlands. 

The  Atlantic  coast  has  been  depressed.  This  has 
caused  islands,  deep  inlets,  bays,  and  estuaries,  and  has 
given  the  coast  many  excellent  harbors.  North  of  San 
Francisco  the  Pacific  coast  has  been  depressed,  and 
another  series  of  inlets  with  harbors  has  been  the  result. 

Natural  resources.  In  the  mountain  regions  and  in 
some  of  the  neighboring  plains  and  plateaus  of  the  east- 
ern part  of  North  America  are  some  of  the  large  sup- 
plies of  coal,  iron,  oil,  and  gas.  These  resources,  with 
water-power,  waterways,  and  railroads,  have  made  possi- 
ble a  great  industrial  development  near  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board. The  iron  and  copper  of  the  Lake  Superior  region 
have  played  a  very  important  part  in  the  development 
of  industries  in  Canada  and  in  the  United  States.  The 
coal,  oil,  gas,  lead,  and  zinc  of  tbe  Mississippi  Valley 
have  been  immensely  valuable.  The  forests  have  fur- 
nished lumber,  which  was  used  for  building  houses  and 


now  in  having  herds  of  reindeer,  which  furnish  them 
with  food.  In  addition  the  skins  of  the  reindeer  are  used 
by  the  Eskimos  for  clothing  and  for  making  their  huts. 


Fig.  236.   These  men  are  harvesting  oats  on  one  of  the  lowland  plains  of  the 

United  States.   Why  is  such  a  region  particularly  favorable  to  agriculture  ? 

What  zone  is  the  most  fortunate  location  for  such  plains?   Why?   What 

Worth  American  country  has  the  greatest  agricultural  possibilities  ? 


THE  CONTINENT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


123 


Life  in  the  Far  South.   A  part  of  Mexico,  all  of  Central  MAP  STUDIES 

America,  and  most  of  the  West  Indies  are  situated  in  lm  where  are  the  young,  rugged  mountains  of  North 
the  torrid  zone.  The  climate  here  is  very  hot,  except  in  America  ?  2.  What  are  the  chief  ranges  of  young,  rugged 
the  mountainous  regions.  Food  plants  grow  in  abun-  mountains?  Make  a  list,  beginning  at  the  north.  3.  What 
dance,  and  the  inhabitants  can  make 
a  living  with  little  effort  (Fig.  238). 
As  a  result  most  of  the  native  people 
do  not  work  hard,  and  the  white 
people  who  migrate  to  these  lands 
soon  learn'  to  take  life  very  easily. 
On  the  windward  sides  of  these  lands 
the  heat  and  moisture  are  so  exces- 
sive as  to  produce  conditions  un- 
attractive to  white  people. 

Life  in  the  temperate  zone.  Most  of 
North  America  is  in  the  temperate 
zone,  where  the  climate  is  variable. 
The  cold  winters  and  warm  summers 
quicken  the  thoughts  and  actions  of 
the  people.  In  this  zone  it  is  neces- 
sary to  provide  warm  homes  and  to 


Courtesy  oi  American  Museum  of  Natural  History 

Fig.  237.    This  Eskimo,   who  lives  in  the  Far 
North,  is  harpooning  a  seal.  Notice  his  fur  cloth- 
ing.  Contrast  his  everyday  life  with  that  of  the 
people  shown  in  Fig.  238 


are  the  names  of  the  plateaus  between 
the  western  mountain  ranges?  Make  a 
list  of  the  great  plateaus,  beginning  at 
the  north.  They  have  hills  and  moun- 
tains rising  above  the  general  plateau 
level,  and  in  places  there  are  very  deep 
canyons.    See  map  opposite  page  124. 

1.  Where  are  the  old,  worn-down 
mountains  of  North  America  ?  5.  Name 
and  locate  the  coastal  plains  of  this 
continent.  6.  In  what  country  is  the 
greater  part  of  the  Central  Plains  region 
located  ?  7.  Into  what  countries  do  the 
Great  Plains  extend?  8.  What  country 
in  North  America  has  the  most  extensive 
lowlands  ? 

9.  Why  are  there  so  many  lakes  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  continent?  See 
Fig.  14.   10.  Explain  the  islands  and  the 


store  up  food  for  the  winter  season.   This  helps  to  make     irregular  coast  of  British  Columbia  and  Alaska 

the  people  industrious.    The  comforts  of  life  are  more  H-  If  you   were   approaching  Greenland,   what  kind  of 

readily  obtained  than  in  the  arctic  countries,  and  yet     scenery  should  you  expect  to  see?    12.  What  cape  in  North 


life  is  not  so  easy  that  the  people  become  lazy.  Work 
must  be  done,  but  there  is  time  for  recreation  and 
pleasure.  The  beautiful  lakes,  the  mountains,  and  the 
seashore  draw  the  people  away  from  city  homes  during 
their  vacations. 

Future.  As  yet  much  of  North  America  is  not  densely 
populated,  though  most  parts  have  been  explored.  There 
are  places  in  the  deserts,  among  the 
high  mountains,  and  far  to  the  north 
where  white  men  have  never  been, 
but  such  places  will  not  be  needed 
until  the  other  lands  are  much  more 
crowded.  Forests  may  be  cleared 
from  vast  areas,  and  thus  more  agri- 
cultural lands  may  be  secured.  Thou- 
sands of  acres  may  yet  be  brought 
under  irrigation  and  made  attractive 
for  settlement.  More  swamp  lands 
will  be  drained.  With  a  greater 
knowledge  of  soils  and  crops  a  much 
larger  production  to  the  acre  will  be 
secured.  More  mines  will  certainly 
be  opened,   larger  factories  will  be 


Fig.  238.    These  are  natives  of  the  Far  South, 

where  life  is  easy.   They  live  out  of  doors  most  of 

the  time,  and  their  clothing  consists  of  simple 

cotton  garments 


America  is  nearest  to  Asia?  13.  What  land  connects  North 
and  South  America?  11.  Along  what  part  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  are  there  clear  signs  of  sinking  of  the  land  ? 

15.  Where  are  the  best  harbors  of  North  America?  16.  Be- 
ginning in  Alaska  and  following  around  the  continent,  select 
the  five  largest  rivers  in  North  America.  Look  in  the  Appen- 
dix and  see  if  you  have  chosen  the  right  ones. 

17.  What  is  the  longest  tributary  to  the  Mississippi  River? 
See  tables  in  Appendix.  18.  Where  is 
the  north  magnetic  pole? 

19.  Where  is  life  for  the  native  people 
very  difficult?  Why?  20.  Where  is 
life  for  the  native  people  very  easy  ? 
Why?  21.  Why  do  white  people  prefer 
the  temperate  climates  ?  22.  How  may 
North  America  be  made  more  suitable 
for  an  increasing  population  ? 

23.  Where  are  the  well-watered  farm- 
ing lands  in  North  America?  24.  Where 
has  farming  been  made  possible  by  means 
of  irrigation  ?  25.  What  cape  near 
Boston  is  in  about  the  same  longitude 
as  Cape  Horn  ?  26.  What  country  in 
North  America  is  in  about  the  same 
latitude  as  the  Sahara  Desert  ?  Is  any 
part  of   that  country  a  desert  region  ? 


built,  seaports  will  be  improved  and  commerce  increased.  See  map  opposi(e  page  124.    27.  What  mountain  peaks  in  the 

The  continent  offers  white  people  unusual  opportunities  United  States  are  about  as  far  north  of  the  equator  as  Mt. 

for  the    advancement    of    civilization,    and    with   good  Vesuvius  in  Italy  ?    28.  What  point  in  Alaska  is  about  as 

governments  these  nations  should  continue  to  grow  in  near  the  north  pole  as  North  Cape,  Norway?    29.  Through 

strength  and  prosperity.  '  what  countries  in  North  America  does  the  arctic  circle  pass  ? 


124 


COMPARATIVE  MAP  STUDIES 


Average  annual  rainfall  in  North  America 


',^1  Uinu  fcud  Cumpaiij 


Distribution  of  people  in  North  America 


Uiuo  and  Company 


COMPARATIVE  MAP  STUDIES 

1.  What  is  the  annual  rainfall  on  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
Coastal  Plain  ?  2.  Why  should  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
be  covered  with  forests,  in  contrast  to  many  of  the  western 
and  southwestern  mountains  ? 

3.  What  is  the  annual   rainfall  in  the   Central  Plains  ? 

4.  Why  should  there  be  so  many  rivers  in  the  Central  Plains  ? 

5.  What  occupations  do  the  geographic  conditions  in  the 
Central  Plains  favor?  6.  In  going  from  Lake  Michigan  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  what  large  rivers  must  be  crossed  ? 

7.  Why  do  the  plains  become  semiarid  near  the  mountains  ? 

8.  What  places  in  the  United  States  seem  to  be  most  favor- 
able for  crossing  the  mountain  area  to  the  Pacific  coast  ? 

9.  Which  would  take  you  through  the  drier  districts,  the 
northern  route  or  the  southern  route  ? 

10.  Why  is  there  so  little  rainfall  in  the  Great  Basin  ? 
11.  Explain  the  presence  of  forests  among  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains of  the  United  States.  12.  What  is  the  average  rainfall 
along  the  Pacific  coast  of  British  Columbia  ?  Why  is  it  so 
heavy  ?  The  prevailing  westerly  winds  bring  moisture  to 
this  coast. 

13.  When  is  the  rainy  season  on  the  Pacific  coast  ?  14.  Why 
do  the  trees  not  extend  to  the  northern  edge  of  the  continent  ? 

15.  Explain  the  extent  of  the  tundra.  16.  Asiatic  wolves 
have  been  seen  in  Alaska.  How  do  you  suppose  they  reached 
there?  17.  Why  are  there  not  more  extensive  forests  in 
the  interior  of  Alaska  ?    18.  Explain  the  presence  of  glaciers 


in  Alaska.  19.  Why  is  the  route  from  Hudson  Bay  to  Europe 
open  only  a  few  months  in  the  year  ?  20.  Where  is  the  rain- 
fall in  Greenland  the  heaviest?    Why? 

21.  Explain  the  dry  condition  of  the  Mexican  Plateau. 
22.  Why  should  the  forests  of  Central  America  and  the 
northern  portion  of  South  America  be  different  from  those 
of  our  southern  states  ?  23.  What  winds  bring  rain  to  Central 
America  and  to  the  West  Indies  ? 

24.  The  relief  and  vegetation  map  represents  summer  con- 
ditions. If  a  map  had  been  made  for  the  winter,  what  bodies 
of  water  should  have  been  shown  as  frozen  ?  About  how  far 
south  should  a  covering  of  snow  have  been  shown  ? 

25.  Does  any  part  of  the  United  States  remain  green  in 
winter  ?  26.  In  what  parts  do  people  live  out  of  doors  in 
winter  ?  Where  are  the  winter  resorts  in  this  continent  ? 
27.  The  rainfall  is  in  general  heaviest  near  the  coasts. 
Explain  this. 

28.  What  prevents  the  moisture-bearing  winds  from  getting 
into  the  northwestern  interior  ?  29.  Which  winds  would  com- 
monly have  moisture  in  them,  those  that  start  over  the  ocean 
and  move  toward  the  land  or  those  that  start  over  the  land 
and  move  toward  the  ocean  ?     Why  ? 

30.  What  parts  of  North  America  are  too  dry  for  agricul- 
ture without  irrigation  ?  31.  Where  is  the  growing  season 
too  short  to  encourage  agriculture  ?  32.  Why  should  certain 
places  have  a  dense  population  ?  Give  examples.  33.  Why 
should  certain  places  have  a  sparse  population  ?  Give  ex- 
amples.   34.  Explain  each  of  the  areas  of  dense  population. 


(.inn  and  Company 


. 


Fig.  239.  The  great  falls  of  the  Iguassii  River,  on  the  boundary  between 
Brazil  and  Argentina,  are  often  called  the  Niagara  of  South  America.  They 
are  nearly  two  miles  wide,  and  their  height  varies  from  208  feet  on  the 
Brazilian  side  to  176  feet  on  the  Argentine  side.   Some  day  the  water-power 


of  these  falls  will  be  used  for  industry.  When  that  time  comes,  Brazil  and 
Argentina  will  have  to  make  some  international  agreement  about  the  use 
of  the  water,  just  as  the  United  States  and  Canada  have  agreed  about 
Niagara.    Locate  these  falls  on  your  map.    Where  does  the  Iguassii  rise  ? 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


INTRODUCTION 


South  America  to-day  is  a  land  of  great  opportunities. 
It  is  a  land  with  varied  resources,  with  many  products 
which  the  world  demands,  without  a  dense  population, 
and  with  much  land  awaiting  settlement.  There  are 
rich  resources  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  and  nitrate. 
Some  coal  and  oil  have  been  discovered,  and  more  will 
probably  be  found.  Most  of  the  people  there  live  near 
the  seacoast,  much  as  people  did  in  North  America  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  ago. 

In  order  that  South  America  may  be  fully  developed, 
harbors  must  be  improved,  more  railroads  must  be  built 
into  the  interior,  harmful  insects  must  be  killed  off, 
greater  use  must  be  made  of  the  wonderful  hard  woods 
of  the  forests,  and  more  people  must  go  to  live  there  as 
miners,  farmers,  or  stock-raisers. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  and  Europe  are  be- 
coming more  and  more  interested  in  South  America, 
and  many  are  studying  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  so  that 
they  may  understand  and  trade  with  the  people  there. 

Trade  routes.  The  eastern  ports  are  about  as  near  to 
Europe  as  they  are  to  New  York ;  but  now  that  the 
Panama  Canal  has  been  opened,  the  western  ports  are 
quickly  reached  by  steamer  from  our  eastern  cities. 
Plans  have  been  made  for  a  great  railroad  to  go  from 
the  United  States  through  Mexico,  Central  America, 
and  South  American  countries  as  far  as  Chile.  It  will 
follow  the  high  plateaus  between  the  ranges  of  the 
Andes.  Certain  sections  of  this  road  have  been  built. 
Turn  to  Plate  B  in  the  Appendix  and  note  the  position 
of  South  America,  and  see  how  the  trade  routes  connect 
South  America  with  all  other  parts  of  the  world. 


People.  On  Plate  A  in  the  Appendix  find  the  part  of 
South  America  where  Columbus  landed,  the  countries 
that  the  Spanish  explored,  and  where  the  Portuguese 
first  came  to  settle.  Many  of  the  native  peoples  of  South 
America  are  uncivilized  as  yet,  and  very  few  have  been 
educated.  There  are  many  negroes,  especially  in  the 
tropical  countries.  They  were  brought  from  Africa  in 
the  early  days  of  European  colonization  to  work  on 
the  sugar  plantations  of  Brazil.  The  white  people  are 
descended  from  Europeans,  —  for  the  most  part  from 
the  Portuguese  who  first  settled  Brazil  and  from  the 
Spanish  who  colonized  the  rest  of  South  America.  In 
the  last  thirty  years  thousands  of  Italians  and  Germans 
have  emigrated  to  South  America.  There  are  many 
people  of  mixed  blood  in  South  America,  for  some  Euro- 
peans married  the  native  Indians  in  the  early  days  of 
settlement,  and  in  the  tropical  countries  the  negro  blood 
is  mixed  with  the  European  and  Indian.  The  white 
people  and  those  of  mixed  descent  have  charge  of  affairs, 
and  they  are  rapidly  improving  the  social,  political,  and 
industrial  conditions  in  the  different  countries. 

Governments.  South  America  is  a  land  of  ten  repub- 
lics and  three  small  colonies,  British,  Dutch,  and  French 
Guiana.  The  form  of  government  in  each  of  the  repub- 
lics is  somewhat  like  that  of  the  United  States. 

Physical  features.  The  natural  regions  of  South 
America  are  arranged  like  those  in  North  America.  See 
map  on  page  126.  In  the  west  there  are  bold,  rugged 
mountains  that  are  very  youthful.  Between  the  moun- 
tain ranges  there  are  plateaus,  although  they  are  not 
so  extensive  as  the  great  plateaus  of  western  North 


125 


Mt  .Mitchell «  A 


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I 1  Old,  worn-down 

I 1  i 


mountains 

Young,  rugged 
mountains 


••   Boundaries  of  natural  regions 

Average  summit  elevations  in  natural  regions  indicated  tbus:    500  to  1000  ft. 

£ouTH 


Green  J)  wich       50° 


©  Ginn  and  Company 


NATURAL  REGIONS 


127 


t'ounesj  ot  the  Pan  American  Union 

Fig.  240.  The  Strait  of  Magellan  is  bordered  by  high,  snow-capped 
mountains  which  descend  'abruptly  into  the  sea,  making  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  scenery  in  South  America.  The  strait  is  very  dangerous  for 
navigation,  and  many  ships  are  wrecked  here.  How  should  you  travel 
from  New  York  to  Valparaiso? 

America.  In  the  east  and  northeast,  just  as  in  North 
America,  there  are  areas  of  old,  worn-down  mountains ; 
and  between  the  mountain  regions,  extending  north  and 
south  for  the  full  length  of  the 
continent,  there  are  lowlands. 

The  west  coast  is  bold  and 
rocky  like  the  west  coast  of  North 
America.  Far  to  the  south  the 
coast  ranges  have  sunk  and  now 
form  an  archipelago  and  irregular 
coast,  just  as  the  coastal  ranges 
of  British  Columbia  and  Alaska 
have  sunk  and  formed  groups 
of  islands  and  wonderful  inlets 
(Fig.  240). 

Climate.  Most  of  South  Amer- 
ica is  between  the  tropics  of  Can- 
cer and  Capricorn,  where  there 
are  hot  winters  as  well  as  hot 
summers.   The  most  densely  set- 


Fig.  241.   This  is  the  Laguna  del  Inca,  one  of  the  beautiful 

lakes  high  up  in  the  heart  of  the  Andes,  on  the  line  of  the 

Trans-Andean  Railway 


6.  Which  continent  has  the  more  irregular  coast  line, 
North  America  or  South  America?  Which  has  more  good 
harbors  ?  7.  What  is  the  general  elevation  of  the  plateau  of 
Bolivia?  of  the  great  lowland  areas?  of  the  Brazilian  and 
Guiana  highlands? 

8.  Between  the  high  mountain  ranges  of  Ecuador  and  Colom- 
bia there  are  narrow,  plateau-like  areas  too  small  to  show  on 
the  map.  9.  Name  five  of  the  higher  peaks  of  the  Andes  Range. 
10.  Name  five  of  the  larger  rivers  of  South  America.  11.  Give 
the  names  of  the  three  great  lowland  areas. 

12.  In  which  country  is  the  Pampa?  13.  Locate  on  the 
map  the  Iguassu  Falls  (Fig.  239).  14.  Where  is  the  highest 
lake  in  the  world  which  is  navigable  for  commercial  purposes  ? 
15.  Locate  two  large  deltas  and  one  estuary.  16.  Which  coast 
has  the  better  harbors  ? 

17.  What  is  the  name  of  the  land  connecting  South  America 
with  North  America  ?  18.  Trace  the  route  of  Magellan  around 
the  southern  end  of  this  continent.    See  Appendix,  Plate  A. 

19.  Fix  in  your  mind  the  name  of  the 
southernmost  cape  in  South  America. 

Natural  Regions 

Andes  Mountains.  The  giant 
ranges  of  the  Andes  are  at  the 
western  margin  of  the  continent. 
Many  of  the  peaks  rise  to  14,000 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  a  few  to 
more  than  20,000  feet  (Fig.  242). 
The  highest  peaks  are  volcanoes, 
and  in  the  region  of  the  vol- 
canoes and  throughout  most  of 
the  length  of  these  young,  rug- 
ged mountains,  earthquakes  are 
common  (Fig.  243).  Volcanoes 
and    earthquakes    are    signs   of 


tied  portion,  which  is  progressive  and  developing  rapidly,     youth  in  mountains,  and  they  usually  mean  that  the 
is  in  the  temperate  zone.  No  part  of  the  continent  except     mountains  are  still  growing. 


near  the  tops  of  the  high  mountains  has  a  long  period  of 
frosts.  In  the  equatorial  belt  the  rainfall  is  heavy,  and 
it  is  also  heavy  where  winds  from  over  the  oceans  blow 
against  mountains  or  highlands.  On  the  lee  side  of 
mountains  there  are  deserts  or  semideserts  as  in  northern 
Chile,  in  Peru,  and  in  southern  Argentina.  See  maps  on 
and  opposite  page  156. 

MAP  STUDIES 

1.  How  have  the  rivers  assisted  in  the  exploration  of  this 
continent  ?  2.  Where  are  the  young  and  rugged  mountains 
of  South  America  ?  3.  Give  the  names  and  locations  of  the 
old,  worn-down  mountains.  4.  Why  are  the  Brazilian  High- 
lands so  different  from  the  Andes? 

5.  Compare  the  general  distribution  of  mountains  and  low- 
lands in  North  and  South  America.  Where  are  the  old  and 
the  young  mountains  in  each  continent?  Where  are  the 
lowlands  of  each  continent  ? 


Brazilian  Highlands.  The  Brazilian  Highlands  are  a 
great  forested  tableland,  from  2000  to  5000  feet  high. 
The  rivers  of  this  region  have  carved  wonderful  gorges 


Courtesj  of  Walter  3.  Tower 

Fig.  242.   The  peak  of  Aconcagua  (23,080  feet),  on  the  boundary  line  between 

Argentina  and  Chile,  is  the  highest  mountain  in  the  two  Americas.    The 

Trans-Andean  Railway,  which  crosses  the  great  wall  of  the  Andes  not  far 

from  this  point,  was  completed  in  1910 


128 


NATURAL  REGIONS 


w 

m 

\ 

*■** ' » 2^5?^^^^^^ 

— - 

■  *«*. 

- 

Lowlands.  The  great  plains  of  South  America  are 
the  largest  in  the  world.  Long  ago  there  was  a  sea 
between  the  Andes  on  the  west  and  the  highlands  on 
the  east.  The  rivers  which  flowed  down  from  the  moun- 
tains into  this  interior  sea  carried  fine  materials,  deposit- 
ing them  on  the  sea  bottom  until  finally  the  sea  was 
filled  up  and  transformed  into  a  broad  area  of  wonderful 
lowland  plains.  Parts  of  the  lowlands  are  to-day  just 
about  at  sea  level,  and  during  the  rainy  seasons  the 
rivers  overflow  and  flood  these  areas. 

The  Orinoco  Lowlands  in  the  north  are  grasslands  called 
the  llanos.   Here  thousands  and  thousands  of  cattle  are 


Fig.  243.  Along  the  Andes  in  Ecuador  are  several  snow-capped  volcanic 

peaks.  This  is  Chimborazo,  which  rises  nearly  four  miles  above  the  level 

of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  from  which  it  can  be  plainly  seen.   Chimborazo  has 

not  erupted  within  historic  times,  and  its  crater  has  entirely  disappeared 

and  developed  beautiful  waterfalls.  In  some  places  the 
land  rises  abruptly  from  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  in  others 
it  is  bordered  by  a  narrow  coastal  plain. 

The  southeast  trade  winds  bring  an  abundance  of  rain 
to  these  highlands,  and  on  their  slopes  there  are  forests 
and  large  areas  of  mixed  grasses,  where  horses,  cattle, 
and  mules  may  graze.  In  some  parts  there  are  rich  soils 
that  yield  excellent  crops. 

Guiana  Highlands.  The  Guiana  Highlands  are  also  old, 
worn-down  mountains.  There  is  one  peak  which  rises 
to  over  11,000  feet,  but  most  of  the  area  is  only  from  3000 
to  4000  feet  above  sea  level.  These  highlands  are  also 
forested,  and,  like  the  Brazilian  Highlands,  are  similar 


UvuriesT  »i  U.  B.  Kourbach 


Fig.  245.  Along  the  Amazon,  from  its  mouth  to  Iquitos,  Peru,  are  little  trad- 
ing stations  like  this.  Here  the  river  steamships  call  on  their  way  upstream 
to  deliver  the  manufactured  goods  which  the  natives  need.  On  their  way 
back  they  stop  again  to  pick  up  the  products  of  the  country  for  export 


raised.  During  the  rainy  season  much  of  this  country  is 
under  water ;  the  people  go  about  in  boats,  and  their 
cattle  leave  for  the  hills.  The  homes  near  the  rivers  must 
to  the  Lauren tian  Upland  and  some  parts  of  the  Appa-  be  built  on  piles  to  prevent  them  from  being  flooded, 
lachian  Highlands  of  North  America.  There  are  deep  The  Amazon  Lowlands  form  a  vast,  flat  plain,  most 
canyons  in  the  Guiana  Highlands.  The  region  is  well  of  which  is  covered  by  the  most  luxuriant  tropical  forest 
watered  and  large  areas  are  covered  with  grass.  For  in  the  world.  The  tree- tops  and  vines  are  so  thick  that 
this  reason  it  is  used  chiefly  for  the  raising  of  cattle,     it  is  dark,  or  twilight,  in  the  depths  of  the  forest  even 

when  the  sun  is  shining.  The  trees  re- 
main green  throughout  the  year.  Even 
such  trees  as  shed  their  leaves  in  the 
fall  in  the  temperate  zone  keep  sending 
out  fresh  green  leaves  in  this  forest. 
The  constant  warmth  and  moisture  help 
the  trees  to  grow  all  the  time. 

Thousands  of  strange  animals  live  in 
this  tropical  forest,  such  as  the  jaguar, 
alligator,  anteater,  and  huge  snakes. 
The  howling  monkeys,  that  have  a 
leader  called  a  chief  howler,  live  here. 
One  sixth  of  all  the  kinds  of   birds 

Fig.  244.  Lake  Titicaca,  which  forms  part  of  the  boundary  between  Peru  and  Bolivia,  is  the      known  in  the  world   have  been  found 
highest  body  of  water  in  the  world  which  is  navigated  for  commercial  purposes.  It  is  one  hundred      ,  ,  r    ,i„„    u„-.~    ™~„+ 

*,...,  ...        ,  ,    *       .    .  ,.    „    *~*         .     ,    .  ..       ,     here,  and  many  of  tnem  nave   most 

and  forty  miles  long,  and  its  surface  is  nearly  two  and  a  half  miles  above  sea  level.   A  line  of  _    _'  J 

steamers  runs  between  the  railroad  terminals  at  Puno  and  Guaqui  at  opposite  ends  of  the  lake  brilliant  plumage. 


NATURAL  REGIONS 


129 


Fig.  246.   Many  of  the  natives  of  the  Amazon  Lowlands  make  a  business  of 

gathering  Brazil  nuts,  which  grow  on  a  very  tall  tropical  tree.   The  men  in 

this  view  are  washing  the  nuts  and  putting  them  into  their  boats,  in 

which  they  will  take  them  to  the  nearest  Amazon  trading  station 


Fig.  247.   When  the  river  boat  calls  at  the  trading  station,  the  Brazil-nut 

traders  put  their  crops  aboard  to  be  carried  down  to  Belem.    There  the  nuts 

are  reshipped  to  other  countries.  What  other  products  do  the  Amazon  River 

boats  bring  out  to  Belem  from  the  interior  of  the  continent  ? 


The  great  butterfly  collections  in  the  museums  have 
been  made  largely  in  the  Amazon  forest.  Insects  are 
innumerable,  and  eighteen  hundred  kinds  of  fish  have 
been  found  in  the  streams  of  the  lowlands. 

The  northeast  and  southeast  trades  carry  much  mois- 
ture inland  from  the  Atlantic.  As  they  rise  to  cross  the 
Andes  they  are  cooled,  and  they  are  forced  to  give  up  their 
moisture  on  the  east  side  of  the  ranges.  Over  eighty 
inches  of  rain  falls  there  each  year.  The  Amazon  Low- 
lands are  near  the  equator,  where  there  is  always  a  heavy 
rainfall  and  where  the  air  is  always  very  hot.  Hot, 
damp  conditions  cause  dense  tropical  forests  and  make 
it  almost  impossible  for  white  people  to  live  there. 

When  people  go  to  live  in  this  dense  tropical  forest, 
they  find  plenty  of  fish  and  game  to  eat,  but  vegetable 
foods  are  scarce  (Fig.  248).  A  part  of  the  forest  must  be 
oleared  away  and  a  garden  planted.  Little  wheat  can 
be  raised  here,  but  the  natives  make  a  flour  from  the 
roots  of  the  manioc  plant. 
Manioc  bread  is  the  com- 
mon food  of  the  natives  in 
Guiana  and  Brazil.  The 
roots  of  the  manioc  plant 
are  gathered  when  they  are 
one  or  two  years  old.  They 
are  washed  and  grated,  and 
after  the  moisture  is  pressed 
out,  the  flour  is  roasted,  and 
then  it  is  ready  to  be  used. 
Tapioca  is  made  from  this 
same  plant. 

The  Parana  Lowlands  are 
farther  south  and  mostly  in 
the  temperate  zone.  Here 
the  rainfall  is  a  little  less, 


.  B.  Roorhich 

Fig.  248.   These  Brazilian  natives  have  just  returned  from  a  turtle  hunt. 

The  sand  banks  of  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  are  inhabited  by  great 

numbers  of  turtles,  which  the  natives  catch  and  use  for  food.   From  the 

eggs  they  make  a  butterlike  substance  which  is  very  popular 


and  instead  of  great  forests  there  are  extensive  grass- 
lands, sometimes  called  savannas.  See  map  opposite 
page  156.  The  Pampa,  or  great  grassland  of  Argentina, 
is  within  this  region.  The  lands  of  southern  Brazil, 
of  Uruguay,  Paraguay,  and  Argentina,  in  the  temperate 
zone,  are  best  suited  to  white  people. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Why  do  so  many  people 
from  Europe  and  North  America  want  to  go  to  South  America  ? 

2.  Name   two  languages  commonly  spoken  in  South  America. 

3.  What  European  nations  have  recently  sent  many  settlers  to 
South  America  ? 

4.  Why  do  most  of  the  people  in  South  America  live  near  the 
coast  ?  See  map  on  page  156.  5.  Is  it  shorter  from  Rio  de  Janeiro 
to  London  or  to  New  York  ?  See  Appendix,  Plate  B.  6.  What  is 
the  best  route  from  New  York  to  Valparaiso  ?  7.  Plan  out  a  trip 
to  South  America  that  you  would  like  to  take. 

8.  In  what  zone  is  most  of  South  America  located  ?  9.  In 
what  zone  in  South  America  is  the  population  most  progres- 
sive ?    10.  How  many  republics  are  there  ?    11.  What  countries 

are  not  independent  ?  To  what 
European  nations  do  they  be- 
long ?    See  map  on  page  126. 

12.  On  what  part  of  South 
America  did  Columbus  land  ? 
13.  Name  and  locate  the  chief 
mountainous  regions.  14.  Name 
and  locate  the  three  large  low- 
land regions.  15.  Describe  briefly 
each  of  the  above  regions.  Use 
the  map  on  page  126  and  also 
the  map  opposite  page  156. 

16.  Explain  the  formation  of 
the  islands  on  the  Chilean  coast. 
17.  Locate  the  Straitof  Magellan, 
Cape  Horn,  and  Punta  Arenas, 
the  southernmost  city  of  the 
world.  18.  Cape  Horn  rises  1400 
feet  above  the  sea.  Is  it  on  the 
mainland  or  on  an  island  ? 


130 


BRAZIL 


r>    ^ 


H  f*M*> 


Courtesy  of  0.  It  Koorbach 

Fig.  249.   These  men  are  rubber  gatherers  of  the  Amazon  Valley.  Each  day 

they  tap  the  wild  rubber  trees  and  collect  the  sap.   On  the  rack  in  front  of 

them  are  the  brownish-black  balls  of  rubber  which  have  been  made  by 

thickening  the  sap  and  curing  it  over  a  smoky  fire 

BRAZIL 

Extent.  This  is  one  of  the  largest  countries  in  the 
Avorld.  In  an  east-and-west  direction  it  extends  as  far 
as  from  New  York  City  to  San  Francisco,  and  in  a  north- 
and-south  direction  as  far  as  from  the  arctic  circle  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  larger  than  continental  United 
States  and  about  half  as  large  as  all  South  America. 
It  touches  every  other  country  on  the  continent  except 
Chile  and  Ecuador,  and  has  6000  miles  of  seacoast.  On 
the  physical  map  (p.  126)  we  see  that  most  of  the  Brazilian 
Highlands,  the  Plateau  of  Central  Brazil,  and  the  vast 
Amazon  Lowlands  are  in  this  country. 

Rivers.  The  Amazon  River  is  the  largest  in  the 
world ;  it  is  not  the  longest,  for  the  Missouri-Mississippi 
River  is  longer,  but  it  contains  more  water  than  any 
other  river  in  the  world.  The  amount  of  fresh  water 
brought  to  the  mouth  of  this  river  is  so  great  that  for 
more  than  100  miles  out  to  sea  the  water  is  fresh.  The 
Amazon  is  about  4000  miles  long,  which  is  600  miles 
more  than  the  distance  from  New  York  to  Liverpool. 


Coune»j  of  the  Pan  American  Union 

Fig.  250.   This  is  one  of  the  great  coffee  plantations  which  cover  the  upland  districts  of  Sao  Paulo, 

where  the  rich  red  earth  and  abundant  rainfall  provide  perfect  conditions  for  the  coffee  trees.  The 

plantations  often  cover  thousands  of  acres.   The  trees  bear  clusters  of  berries  which  look  like  dark 

red  cherries.   Inside  each  berry  are  two  seeds,  which  are  the  coffee  beans  of  commerce 


For  250  miles  upstream  from  the  mouth  this  river  is 
50  miles  wide,  so  that  it  looks  like  a  broad  bay 
rather  than  a  river.  The  main  stream  and  the  twenty- 
nine  large  tributaries  have  27,000  miles  of  navigable 
waters,  which  is  more  than  any  other  river  system  in 
the  world.  The  northeast  trades,  which  blow  with 
greater  force  by  day  than  by  night,  help  the  sailboats 
up  the  Amazon.  The  boatmen  travel  upstream  by  day, 
but  when  they  want  to  come  downstream  they  travel  at 
night,  so  that  they  will  not  have  the  strong  wind  against 
them,  and  the  current  will  take  them  along  faster.  During 
the  rainy  season 
the  main  stream 
rises  from  20  to 
50  feet,  over- 
flow's, and  be- 
comes a  chain  of 
lakes.  The  trib- 
utaries frequent- 
ly overflow  their 
banks  also  and 
flood  the  country 
near  them.  This 
is  the  reason  why 
so  many  of  the 
houses  near  the 
rivers  are  built 
on  piles. 

Boats  may  go 
up  the  Madeira, 
the  largest  tribu- 
tary, for  nearly 

500  miles  to  the  lower  end  of  the  falls.  There  is  a 
railroad  from  the  lower  end  to  the  upper  end  of  the 
series  of  falls  and  rapids, — a  distance  of  about  200 
miles,  —  and  farther  upstream  one  may  again  travel 
by  boat  far  into  the  interior  of  Bolivia. 

People.  If  the  Indians  are  counted,  there  are  over 
twenty  million  people  in  Brazil.  The 
Portuguese  claimed  this  country  by 
right  of  discovery.  When  they  came 
to  South  America,  they  found  many 
native  tribes  of  Indians.  To-day  most 
of  the  Indian  people  live  in  the  interior. 
Many  of  them  have  house-boats  and 
live  on  the  rivers  part  of  the  time,  but 
they  also  have  small  villages,  where 
they  have  cleared  away  the  dense  tropi- 
cal forests.  The  population  of  this  re- 
public now  includes  many  people  from 
nearly  every  European  nation,  as  well 
as  some  from  Asia.   Most  of  the  white 


Fig.  251.    In  addition  to  the   wild  rubber  trees, 

Brazil  has  many  rubber  plantations.    This  view 

shows  the  way  in  which  the  plantation  trees  are 

cut  to  make  them  bleed 


BRAZIL 


131 


people  live  in  the  larger  cities 
along  the  eastern  coast  or 
in  the  farming  country  of 
southern  Brazil. 

Resources.  In  the  high- 
lands gold,  copper,  lead, 
iron,  some  coal  and  oil,  and 
a  remarkable  number  of  dia- 
monds have  been  discovered . 
The  highlands  have  rich 
soils  and  are  well  watered. 
The  Central  Plateau  is  a 
great  grassland  where  cattle, 
horses,  and  mules  are  raised. 
The  Amazon  Lowlands  are 
overgrown  with  a  tropical 
forest  where  there  are  thou- 
sands of  rubber  trees.  There 
are  also  mahogany,  rose- 
wood, ebony,  and  cacao  trees,  besides  many  trees  which 
yield  valuable  drugs,  and  others  which  yield  Brazil  nuts 
(Figs.  246,  247).  The  soils  of  the  lowlands  are  very  rich. 

Climate.  Most  of  Brazil  is  in  the  lowlands  of  the 
torrid  zone.  That  means  high  temperatures.  We  learned 
on  pages  128  and  129  that  the  rainfall  is  heavy  in  the 
Amazon  basin  and  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Brazilian 
Highlands.  In  the  upper  basin  of  the  Sao  Francisco 
River,  which  is  shut  off  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by 
highlands,  there  is  an  area  of  light  rainfall.  See  map  on 
page  156.    Here  irrigation  is  necessary  for  agriculture. 


Courtesy  of  the  Pan  American  Union 

Fig.  252.  These  are  the  yards  where  the  coffee  seeds  are  spread  out  to  dry 
in  the  sun  after  being  separated  from  the  pulp  of  the  berries.  While  drying 
they  are  stirred  frequently  with  wooden  rakes.  When  thoroughly  dried,  the 
seeds  are  peeled  and  the  beans  sorted,  graded,  and  put  into  bags  for  shipment 


crude  rubber  which  the  na- 
tive Indian  people  brought 
in  from  their  little  camps 
in  the  forest  (Figs.  249,  251). 
On  the  southern  slopes  of 
the  Guiana  Highlands  and 
on  the  grasslands  south  of 
the  tropical  forests  grazing 
has  become  the  principal 
occupation  of  the  people. 

In  the  Brazilian  High- 
lands near  Sao  Paulo  and  Rio 
de  Janeiro  there  are  wonder- 
ful coffee-producing  lands, 
where  four  fifths  of  the 
coffee  produced  in  the  world 
is  grown  (Figs.  250,  252). 
Until  a  railroad  was  con- 
structed up  the  mountain 
wall  from  Santos  to  Sao  Paulo  it  was  very  difficult  to 
get  the  coffee  to  the  port.  Now  there  is  a  remarkably 
well-built  and  well-equipped  railroad  that  climbs  2500 
feet  in  a  short  distance  and  connects  the  seaport  with 
the  great  producing  area.  More  coffee  is  carried  over 
that  road  than  any  other  road  in  the  world.  There  are  a 
few  other  railroads  that  start  from  the  coast  and,  after 
reaching  the  highland  surface,  branch  off  in  several 
directions  into  the  interior. 

Mining  is  becoming  important  in  the  Brazilian  High- 
lands, and  some  day  that  industry  will  be  much  more 


South  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  the  temperatures  are     developed.    There  are  immense  deposits  of  high-grade 


lower  than  near  the  equator,  and  there  is  less  rainfall. 
That  is  a  country  of  excellent  grasslands. 

Occupations.  What  have  the  people  who  came  to 
settle  in  Brazil  done  with  the  great  natural  resources  ? 
Along  the  lower  Amazon  River,  and  on  cleared  parts  of 
the  lowlands  near  the  eastern  coast,  they  established 
great  plantations  of  sugar,  rice,  and  tobacco.  After  a 
time  they  learned  to  go  far  up  the  rivers  and  gather  the 


iron  ore  in  the  old,  worn-down  mountains,  which  the 
world  is  certain  to  need.  Then  more  railroads  will  be 
built  into  the  mountains,  and,  as  the  mining  increases, 
it  is  likely  that  more  ores  will  be  discovered.  Prosper- 
ous mining  camps  will  undoubtedly  be  established  in 
the  highland  area.  The  southern  part  of  this  region 
also  contains  bituminous  coal,  but  the  quality  is  so 
poor  that  at  the  present  time  it  is  not  worth  mining. 


1 

_gfe*, 

^K^-   ft— 

^"^■HsiiBi/ 

PftfWS 

iiSBpSi 

1!j!^_^^?^?~l^ljS  iju' : 

■            ■ 

—  I 

^^^« 

Fig.  253.   This  is  Santos,  the  world's  greatest  center  of  coffee  export.   The 

Sao  Paulo  coffee  district  is  covered  by  a  network  of  railroads  which  bring 

the  coffee  to  Sao  Paulo,  whence  a  single  line  takes  it  to  Santos.  Locate  Santos 

on  the  map  on  page  145.   To  what  countries  is  the  coffee  sent  ? 


Fig.  254.   S2o  Salvador,  the  center  of  Portuguese  rule  in  Brazil  in  colonial 

days,  was  the  leading  Brazilian  port  as  long  as  sugar  was  the  chief  export 

of  the  country.  Why  is  it  no  longer  the  leading  port  ?   Notice  the  escalator 

which  connects  the  lower  (old)  city  with  the  upper  (new) 


132 


BRAZIL 


Courtea,  ot  H  jtker  .s.  Tower 

Fig.  255.   The  Marine  Depot  at  Rio  stands  on  one  of  the  many  islands  near 

the  entrance  to  the  harbor.   Here  the  harbor  master  has  his  headquarters 

and  can  easily  oversee  the  shipping  which  passes  in  and  out.    What  are 

the  chief  reasons  for  the  commercial  importance  of  Rio  ? 

Toward  the  south,  near  Paraguay,  the  land  is  low  and 
excellent  for  farming.  Here  the  people  raise  a  great 
deal  of  yerba  mate,  which  is  used 
in  making  a  drink  which  is  some- 
what like  tea. 

Home  work.  In  some  good  reference 
book  read  about  the  life  of  the  natives  who 
prepare' the  crude  rubber  for  market. 

Cities.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the  capital, 
with  over  a  million  people,  is  the 
largest  city  in  Brazil  and  the  second 
largest  in  South  America.  Buenos 
Aires  is  the  largest.  Rio  is  located  on 
the  most  beautiful  harbor  in  the 
world,  where  the  largest  vessels  may 
anchor  safely  (Figs.  257,  259).  This  is 
a  place  where  the  land  sank  and  let 
the  ocean  waters  come  in.  Over  a 
hundred  little  islands  in  the  harbor 
are  hills  or  low  mountains  with  only 


Courtesy  of  the  Pin  American  t'nlon 

Fig.  256.   The   port  of  Recife  is  protected  by  a 

breakwater  built  on  a  reef  which  fringes  the  shore. 

Without  the  breakwater  ships  could  not  anchor  at 

Recife  safely.   Explain  why 


Sao  Salvador,  which  used  to  be  known  as  Bahia,  is  the 
capital  of  the  state  of  Bahia.  Coffee,  cacao,  and  cotton 
are  the  most  important  products  raised  in  Bahia,  and 
these  products  form  the  chief  exports. 

Recife,  which  is  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Pernambuco, 
is  situated  on  the  fertile  coastal  lowlands  of  Brazil. 
Recife  is  one  of  the  chief  sugar  centers  in  Brazil. 

Both  Sao  Salvador  and  Recife  are  important  seaports. 
See  Figs.  254  and  256  and  the  map  on  page  135. 

Belem,  sometimes  called  Para,  is  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon,  about  a  degree  and  a  half  south  of  the  equator. 
It  is  an  important  rubber  port. 

From  Belem  large  ocean  vessels  go  up  the  Amazon  to 
Manaos.  Although  situated  nearly  a  thousand  miles  in- 
land, Manaos  has  become  a  thriving  city  with  many 
modern  conveniences.  The  growth 
of  Manaos  is  due  partly  to  its  loca- 
tion at  the  junction  of  the  Negro 
and  Amazon  rivers  and  partly  to  the 
plentiful  supply  of  rubber  found  in 
the  neighboring  forests. 

Home  work.  Read  about  the  work  on  a 
coffee  plantation. 

Summary.  Without  doubt  you  will 
always  remember  Brazil  for  its  rubber 
and  its  coffee,  but  do  not  forget  that 
Brazil  is  a  large  country,  that  grazing, 
farming,  and  mining  are  all  very 
important,  and  that  lumbering  has 
great  possibilities.  A  start  has  been 
made  in  manufacturing.  There  are 
cotton  mills  in  Brazil,  but  they  do 


their  tops  out  of  water.    The  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  is     not  produce  nearly  enough  cloth  to  satisfy  the  needs  of 


built  on  narrow  plains  between  the  hills.  In  the  older 
part,  which  is  the  business  district,  the  streets  are  narrow. 
In  the  newer  part  there  are  wide  avenues  bordered  by 
rows  of  beautiful  palms,  feathery  bamboos,  and  tree 
ferns  (Fig.  258).  The  homes  in  this  part  of  the  city 
are  modern,  and  many  of  them  are  set  in  gardens  of 
flowering  tropical  plants. 

Santos  is  the  port  for  Sao  Paulo,  the  second  largest  city 
in  Brazil.  Santos  is  one  of  the  busiest  places  in  South 
America.  Over  2000  vessels  enter  and  leave  the  port 
each  year,  and  about  15,000,000  bags  of  coffee  are  shipped 
annually  (Fig.  253). 

Sao  Paulo  is  about  2000  feet  above  the  sea  and  has  a 
delightful  climate.  The  air  is  warm  during  the  summer 
days  but  cool  at  night.  In  winter  there  are  sometimes 
slight  frosts.  The  climate  seems  to  help  to  produce 
vigorous  men.  There  are  excellent  modern  factories, 
where  electricity  and  the  best  of  machinery  are  used. 


the  people,  and  so  cotton  cloth  and  cotton  garments  are 


j)  E.  H.  Nrwrnan 

Fig.  257.   The  Bay  of  Botafogo  is  part  of  the  harbor  of  Rio.   The  avenue 
which  encircles  it  was  built  on  made  land  where  there  was  formerly  a  man- 
grove swamp  which  caused  terrible  epidemics  of  yellow  fever  in  Rio. 
Cleaning  it  out,  draining,  and  filling  have  freed  Rio  from  the  fever 


BRAZIL 


133 


Courteaj  of  Uie  t&u  American  Union 

Fig.  258.    The  Avenida  Rio  Branco  is  the  finest  street  in  Rio  and  is  the 
center  of  Brazilian  art  and  culture.    This  view  shows,  on  the  left,  the 
mosaic  sidewalk  and  the  Municipal  Theatre,  and  on  the  right  the  Conserva- 
tory of  Music,  the  National  Library,  and  the  Art  Museum 

imported  into  nearly  every  city.  If  someone  should  find 
more  coal  or  oil,  or  if  the  people  should  use  more  of  the 
water-power  to  make  electricity,  Brazil  might  undertake 
more  manufacturing. 

The  waters  from  the  Brazilian  Highlands  are  carried 
off  by  the  Uruguay,  Parana,  and  Sao  Francisco  rivers. 
These  streams  have  many  falls  which  offer  opportunities 
for  the  development  of  water-power  which  should  furnish 
electricity  for  cities,  factories,  and  railroads  (Fig.  239). 

Future.  One  of  the  future  problems  for  this  large 
republic  is  the  building  of  railroads  into  the  interior. 
This  work  has  already  been  started,  and  in  time  it  will 
be  possible  to  go  by 
rail  from  Rio  de 
Janeiro  into  any  of 
the  states  of  Brazil. 

The  development 
of  railroads  will  in 
turn  soon  lead  to 
the  establishment  of 
cities  and  to  the 
spread  of  population 
into  the  interior. 

With  the  estab- 
lishment of  inland 
cities  another  prob- 
lem must  be  faced. 
The  tropical  forests 
are  full  of  insect 
pests  and  danger- 
ous animals,  which 
must  be  killed  be- 
fore people  can  live 
safely  in  this  part 
of  Brazil.    Finally, 


through  education  and  the  use  of  scientific  knowledge 
the  spread  of  tropical  diseases  must  be  prevented.  When 
these  things  are  done,  more  people  will  wish  to  live  here 
and  help  to  develop  the  wonderful  natural  resources. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Compare  the  size  of  Brazil 
with  that  of  the  United  States;  with  the  continent  of  South 
America ;  with  the  continent  of  Europe.  2.  Name  three  large 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon  River.  Which  tributary  is  the  largest  ? 
3.  In  what  region  does  the  Amazon  rise  ?  4.  How  should  you  go 
from  Belem,  in  Brazil,  to  Sucre  in  Bolivia?  5.  Of  what  nationality 
were  the  early  settlers  of  Brazil  ?  6.  In  what  part  of  the  country 
do  their  descendants  live  ?  7.  Why  have  so  many  people  from  the 
nations  of  Europe  come  to  live  in  this  republic?  8.  Where  do 
most  of  these  people  live  ?  Why  ?  9.  What  is  the  official  language 
of  Brazil  ?  10.  How  do  you  explain  this  ?  11.  Name  and  locate 
the  capital  and  four  other  large  cities.  12.  What  fact  should 
you  associate  with  each  city  named  ? 

13.  What  are  the  chief  products  shipped  from  each  seaport  ? 

14.  What  should  you  remember  about  the  Amazon  Lowlands  ? 

15.  Which  city  in  Brazil  is  very  near  the  equator  ?  16.  What  is 
the  chief  export  from  that  city  ?  17.  What  city  on  the  Amazon 
River  can  be  reached  by  large  ocean-going  vessels  ?  18.  For  what 
is  the  Central  Plateau  of  Brazil  valuable  ? 

19.  Why  is  it  difficult  to  live  or  to  travel  in  the  tropical  forest  ? 
20.  What  things  will  help  the  development  of  Brazil  ?  21.  What 
countries  in  South  America  do  not  border  on  Brazil  ? 

Home  work.  1.  On  an  outline  map  of  South  America  color  the 
boundaries  of  each  country.  Print  in  the  names  of  the  countries. 
2.  Locate  and  name  the  capitals.  3.  Locate  and  print  in  Belem, 
Valparaiso,  Callao,  Guayaquil,  Santos,  Sao  Paulo,  Manaos,  Rosario, 
Sao  Salvador,  Recife,  La  Guaira,  Santa  Marta,  Buenaventura, 
Punta  Arenas,  Cdrdoba,  Porto  Alegre,  La  Plata,  Villa  Rica. 


ni^jyusKina 

ABLOAF 


#Bota5^ 


apa  Cabana 


ATLANTIC     OCEAN 


<&  Uinu  and  Cumpuj 

Fig.  259.   This  is  an  aeroplane  drawing  of  the  country  bordering  the  Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.   Explain  the  irregularity  of  the 

coast  line  here.   Why  is  such  a  coast  line  favorable  for  Rio  ?   Describe  the  land  surface  on  which  Rio  is  built.   What  is  the 

vegetation  here  ?  See  map  opposite  page  156.  Why  has  Rio  become  a  more  important  port  than  Belem,  Recife,  or  Sao  Salvador  ? 

What  are  its  chief  exports  and  imports  ?   With  what  countries  does  Brazil  trade  most  ?   Can  you  explain  your  answer  ? 


134 


THE  GUIANAS 


0}     o>  T3     <d 


*«! 


136 


VENEZUELA 


where  it  furnishes  a  pleasant  contrast  to  the  green  of 
the  abundant  foliage  which  almost  surrounds  it. 

Dutch  colony.  On  the  lowlands  bordering  the  coast 
there  are  several  low,  parallel  ridges  which  indicate  old 
shore  lines.    The  sea  has  slowly  withdrawn  from  the 


Courtesy  of  Williams,  Brown,  and  Eurle 

Fig.  261.  The  docks  at  Georgetown  are  always  busy.  Workmen  constantly 

come  and  go,  unloading  the  goods  which  the  foreign  ships  have  brought  or 

loading  them  with  sugar,  rice,  and  other  products.    British  capital  and 

energy  are  making  British  Guiana  more  important  every  year 

land  and  left  a  number  of  long  marshes.  In  the  marshy 
region  the  people  have  built  dikes,  just  as  they  did  in 
their  home  country,  Holland,  to  keep  out  the  sea.  These 
lands,  when  drained,  have  wonderfully  rich  soils,  and 
great  crops  of  fruit  are  raised.  Far  back  in  the  hills 
there  are  mineral  deposits.  Gold  has  been  found  and 
mined,  but  there  is  a  shortage  of  labor,  and  railroads 
are  greatly  needed  to  help  develop  the  natural  resources. 
Paramaribo  is  the  chief  city  of  Dutch  Guiana  and  is 
located  on  the  coast  (Fig.  262). 

French  colony.    Most  of  the  people  of  this  colony  live 
on  the  coastal  lowlands.    In  the  south,  in  the  highland 


VENEZUELA 

The  name  "Venezuela"  means  Little  Venice.  The 
country  was  so  named  because  the  houses  in  the  low- 
lands, like  those  of  Venice,  were  built  on  piles.  The 
native  people  who  live  along  the  banks  of  the  streams 
have  their  houses  built  in  that  way  so  that  they  may 
occupy  them  even  during  the  rainy  season,  when  the 
river  rises  and  overflows  its  banks. 

In  the  southeast  the  country  is  hilly,  and  in  the  north 
and  northwest  there  is  a  portion  of  the  great  range  of 
the  Andes. 

The  southern  highlands  are  known  to  contain  gold, 
copper,  iron,  and  coal,  in  addition  to  the  large  supply 
of  timber.  Much  of  this  part  has  not  yet  been  explored, 
as  there  are  no  convenient  means  for  reaching  the 
region. 

The  climate.  The  northeast  trades  that  bring  so  much 
rain  to  the  Guianas  also  bring  an  abundance  of  water 
to  Venezuela.  The  wet  season  lasts  from  about  the 
middle  of  April  until  September,  and  the  rest  of  the 
year  is  dry.  During  the  dry  season  there  are  heavy 
dews.  The  temperature  is  always  warm  in  the  lowlands 
and  usually  cool  in  the  mountains. 

The  easterly  breeze  is  a  great  comfort  to  the  people  of 
Venezuela  who  live  near  the  coast.  Every  morning  at 
about  four  o'clock  this  breeze  begins  to  come  in  from 
the  sea.  Sometimes  it  is  very  strong.  It  sweeps  away 
the  mists  that  hang  over  the  swamp  lands,  dries  out  the 
vegetation  somewhat,  and  helps  to  purify  the  air.  At 
about  eleven  o'clock  it  suddenly  dies  away  and  there 
is  a  very  hot  period.  Almost  everybody  goes  to  sleep. 
Even  the  leaves  cease  to  move.  Not  a  sound  is  heard, 
unless  some  traveler  from  a  northern  country  is  here, 


portion  of  the  country,  there  is  gold  in  the  stream  gravels,     who  has  not  yet  learned  to  keep  still  during  this  part 

and  some  day  placer  mining,  like  that  practiced  in  Cali-     of  the  day.    At  about  two  o'clock  the  birds  are  again 

fornia  and  Alaska,  may  become  an  important  occupation,     heard  in  the  forest,  and  the  leaves  begin  to  rustle  ;  the 

There  is  a  great  shortage  of  labor,  and 

travel  is  difficult.   The  French  people 

have  tried  the  plan  of  sending  to  this 

colony  convicts  who  have  long  terms  to 

serve  in  prison,  and  have  arranged  to 

have  them  work  out  of  doors.  There  are 

several  thousand  such  men  in  French 

Guiana  now,  but  the  amount  of  work 

they  do  is  not  very  great.    Cayenne  is 

the  capital  of  French  Guiana.    • 

Problems  and  review  questions.    1.  About 
how  large  are  these  colonies  ?   2.  To  whom  do 

they  belong  ?  3.  What  kind  of  climate  have  ng  262    Paramaribo  „  the  capital  and  chief  port  of  Dutch  Guiana.  Its  spotless  white  buildings, 

they  .    4.  Is  the  climate  favorable  to  white  clean  streets,  and  many  canals  remind  one  of  Holland.  The  population,  however,  is  made  up  largely 

people  ?   5.  What  are  the  chief  occupations  0f  negroes  and  laborers  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  who  work  on  the  sugar,  rice,  and  cacao  planta- 
of  the  people  ?    6.  What  have  they  to  sell  ?  tions.  This  is  because  the  hot,  moist  climate  makes  it  very  hard  for  white  people  to  live  here 


VENEZUELA 


137 


shers'  Photo  Service,  loo. 


Fig.  263.   The  railroad  between  La  Guaira  and  Caracas  has  to  climb  3000  feet 

from  the  port  to  the  capital.   The  straight  distance  is  only  8  miles,  but  the 

railroad  zigzags  up  the  slopes  of  the  mountain  range,  covering  23  miles. 

A  British  company  constructed  this  railroad  and  still  owns  it 

breeze  is  starting,  and  it  will  continue  to  blow  during 
the  rest  of  the  afternoon,  and  even  until  sunset. 

At  La  Guaira,  the  chief  seaport,  the  air  is  moist  and 
very  warm,  but  at  Caracas,  the  capital,  the  climate  is  cool 
and  pleasant  (Fig.  265).  The  temperature  at  Caracas 
seldom  rises  above  85  degrees  or  falls  below  60  degrees. 
There  is  not  a  stove,  nor  a  fireplace,  nor  a  chimney  in 
the  town.    The  cooking  is  done  in  out-of-door  ovens. 

Occupations.  Most  of  the  white  people  of  Venezuela 
live  in  the  mountain  area  in  the  north  (Figs.  263,  264). 
This  is  because  the  hot,  moist  lowlands,  like  those  in  the 
Guianas,  are  unattractive  to  white  people.  Between  the 
ranges  in  the  north,  in  a  broad,  valley-like  belt  from 
70  to  100  miles  wide,  coffee,  cacao,  and  sugar  are  raised. 
These  products  are  exported  in  large  quantities  to  the 
United  States  and  Europe. 

The  lowland  valley  of  the  Orinoco  is  an  excellent 
pasture  land,  on  which  great  herds  of  cattle  graze.  The 
cattle  must  often  be  driven  long  distances  to  reach  points 
on  the  river  for  shipment.  Here  they  may  wait  for  days 
for  a  boat.  Better  shipping  conditions  are  needed  in 
order  to  make  the  most  of  these  pastures. 

Large  steamers  go  for  260  miles  up  the  Orinoco,  and 
there,  at  the  head  of  tidewater,  is  the  city  of  Ciudad 
Bolivar.  In  certain  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco  vast 
numbers  of  turtles  live,  and  each  year  the  natives  collect 
thousands  of  turtle  eggs,  from  which  they  extract  an 
oil.  The  shells  of  the  turtles  are  often  used  as  dishes 
in  the  houses  of  the  natives. 

Although  the  mountains  contain  coal,  iron,  copper, 
silver,  gold,  and  other  minerals,  as  yet  there  is  little 
mining.  Some  gold  is  produced  and  exported.  Along 
the  coasts  there  are  valuable  pearl  fisheries. 

Future.  Some  day  railroads  will  be  built  far  into  the 
interior  of  Venezuela,  and  then  it  will  be  possible  to 


Fig.  264.   The  railroad  carries  the  passengers  and  express  freight,  but  the 

pack-train  donkeys  are  used  to  carry  the  slow  freight.   Here  is  a  group  of 

them,  heavily  laden,  plodding  along  the  road  from  La  Guaira  to  Caracas, 

a  distance  of  25  miles.   Why  are  the  donkeys  used  for  this  purpose? 


bring 


the  cattle  and  other  products  more  quickly  to 
the  seaports.  Farming  may  also  become  important,  and 
thus  this  country  may  be  much  more  prosperous.  Some 
think  that  Venezuela  is  more  promising  than  any  other 
country  of  equal  area  in  South  America.  As  yet  there 
are  too  few  white  people  in  the  country,  and  the  Indians 
and  black  people  are  lazy.  This  country  is  within  such 
easy  reach  by  water  from  the  United  States  that  many 
people  in  North  America  will  probably  take  part  in  the 
development  of  its  natural  resources. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  winds  bring  mois- 
ture to  Venezuela  and  to  the  Guianas  ?  2.  Could  these  winds 
have  helped  Columbus  to  discover  America  and  reach  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco  ?  3.  What  kind  of  ships  did  he  have  ?  4.  Where 
do  most  of  the  white  people  of  Venezuela  live  ?  5.  What  do 
they  raise  to  sell  ?  6.  Of  what  value  are  the  great  Orinoco  Low- 
lands ?  7.  What  does  this  country  need  in  order  to  develop  its  re- 
sources ?    8.  With  what  disadvantages  must  the  people  contend  ? 


Fig.  265.   This  is  the  patio,  or  open  court,  of  the  capitol  at  Caracas.   The 

capitol  is  a  large  building,  divided  by  the  patio  into  two  parts.   One  part 

is  occupied  by  the  president,  and  the  other  is  used  for  the  meetings  and 

business  of  the  legislature 


138 


COLOMBIA 


COLOMBIA 

Colombia  is  fortunate  in  having  an  Atlantic  and  a 
Pacific  coast  line.  It  is  one  of  the  countries  that  should 
be  greatly  benefited  by  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal. 


i£D  Underwood  &  Underwood 


Fig.  266.  Colombia  has  very  few  railroads,  and  the  Magdalena  River  is 
the  great  commercial  highway  through  the  country.  The  flat-bottomed 
boats  which  are  used  on  the  river  burn  wood  for  fuel  and  are  propelled 
by  a  great  stern  wheel.  Whenever  they  need  wood,  they  load  it  from  one 
of  the  many  wood  stations  along  the  river 

Vessels  may  now  easily  reach  either  shore  or  go  from 
Colombian  ports  directly  to  other  Atlantic  or  Pacific  ports. 

Natural  regions.  On  the  coastal  lowlands  in  the  north 
there  are  dense  jungles.  In  places  these  have  been  cleared 
for  plantations  of  sugar  cane  and  cacao.  Farther  south 
along  the  western  portion  of  the  country  are  the  moun- 
tains and  plateaus,  where  the  climate  is  cool  and  delight- 
ful. Nearly  all  the  cities  and  towns  are  located  in  the 
higher  part,  and  most  of  the  people  live  and  work  there. 
The  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes  and  the  great  eastern 
lowland  area  of  Colombia  are  as  yet  little  known. 

To  reach  the  plateau  district  among  the  mountains  one 
must  sail  up  the  Magdalena  River  (Fig.  266).  Rapids 
prevent  the  boats  from  going  more  than  600  miles,  so 
after  four  or  five  days'  travel  one  must  change  and  go 
by  rail  around  the  rapids,  and  then  return  to  the  river 
in  order  to  go  farther  into  the  interior. 

Cities.  A  railroad  climbs  to  the  plateau  where  Bogota, 
the  capital  of  Colombia,  is  located.  This  city  is  between 
8000  and  9000  feet  above  sea  level,  and,  like  many  other 
South  American  cities,  is  built  in  a  fashion  similar  to 
those  of  Spain.  The  houses  stand  on  either  side  of  the 
narrow  streets.  They  have  no  front  yards,  but  are  built 
around  private  gardens,  or  patios,  which  are  hidden  from 
the  street.  The  walls  of  the  houses  are  so  thick  that  they 
keep  out  the  sun's  heat,  and  most  of  the  buildings  are 
only  one  story  high. 

Puerto  Colombia  (the  port  for  Barranquilla)  and  Santa 
Marta  are  the  chief  seaports  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and 
Buenaventura  is  the  chief  Pacific  port. 


Resources.  Colombia  is  a  land  Avhich  produces  coffee, 
gold,  silver,  bananas,  and  hides.  A  great  deal  of  platinum 
is  also  mined  for  export ;  in  fact,  Colombia  is  one  of  the 
two  leading  platinum-producing  countries  in  the  world 
(Fig.  267).  More  emeralds  are  found  in  the  mountains 
of  Colombia  than  in  any  other  country. 

The  forests  on  the  east  slopes  of  the  Andes  contain 
thousands  of  rubber  trees  and  undoubtedly  many  other 
valuable  trees. 

Future.  The  rich  soils,  the  mineral  resources  (which 
as  yet  have  been  little  developed),  and  the  forests,  all 
point  to  this  country  as  another  region  where  progress 
will  be  rapid  as  soon  as  more  railroads  and  more  capital 
are  provided. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  are  the  chief  exports 
from  Colombia  ?  2.  In  what  part  of  the  country  do  most  of  the 
people  live  ?  3.  Is  this  a  warm  or  a  cold  country  ?  4.  What  does 
this  country  chiefly  need  in  order  to  make  possible  greater  develop- 
ment ?  5.  Where  is  the  capital  ?  6.  How  is  the  capital  reached  ? 
7.  How  may  the  Panama  Canal  benefit  Colombia  ? 

ECUADOR 

Land  of  the  equator.  This  is  a  small  country  on  the 
equator,  famous  for  its  panama  hats,  for  its  cacao,  and 
for  the  vegetable  ivory  from  which  most  of  our  buttons 
are  made.  It  is  a  land  of  volcanoes  and  has  almost 
every  variety  of  climate. 

Natural  regions.  Ecuador  is  easily  divided  into  three 
parts:  (1)  the  Pacific  slope,  where  there  is  some  flat 
land  and  a  coastal  range  of  old,  worn-down  mountains ; 
(2)  the  high  mountains  and  plateaus  ;  and  (3)  the  eastern 
slope,  where  some  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon  rise. 
The  eastern  slope  passes  into  the  great  Amazon  Low- 
lands and  is  covered  with  a  dense  forest  growth.    The 


Courtesj  of  the  P»Q  Amenci 


Fig.  267.  This  is  a  new  platinum-mining  town  near  the  Pacific  coast  of 
Colombia.  Here  the  platinum  grains  are  washed  out  of  the  sands  brought 
down  from  the  mountains  by  the  rivers.  What  other  mineral  resources 
has  Colombia  ?  In  what  countries  does  Colombia  find  a  market  for  its 
mineral  products  ? 


ECUADOR 


139 


western  slope  also  has  forests,  and  it  is  an  excellent 
grazing  country  for  cattle  (Fig.  268). 

Climate.  If  we  were  in  Ecuador  and  at  sea  level,  we 
should  find  it  very  hot  all  the  time  and  with  enough 
rain  for  agriculture.  If  we  went  up  to  an  elevation  of 
one  mile  above  sea  level,  the  temperature  and  vegetation 
would  change  as  much  as  if  we  traveled  1500  miles  north 
or  south.  If  we  climbed  to  a  height  of  two  miles,  the 
change  in  temperature  and  vegetation  would  be  about 
the  same  as  if  we  traveled  2500  miles  north  or  south. 
If  we  climbed  from  sea  level  to  the  tops  of  the  highest 


Courtesy  of  the  Pan  American  Uni 


Fig.  268.  Here  is  one  of  the  comfortable  estancias,  or  ranch  homes,  in 
the  lowland  region  north  of  Guayaquil.  The  head  of  the  family  raises 
cattle,  and  all,  even  the  women  and  children,  ride  about  the  country  on 
horseback.  Why  can  the  products  of  every  climate  in  the  world  be  grown 
somewhere  in  Ecuador  ? 

mountains  in  Ecuador,  it  would  be  somewhat  like 
traveling  from  the  torrid  to  a  frigid  zone.  The  different 
altitudes  explain  the  variety  in  climate  and  vegetation. 

Resources.  On  the  Pacific  Lowlands  there  are  rich 
soils,  and  wonderful  crops  of  sugar  and  cacao  beans  are 
raised.  The  toquilla  plant  grows  here  and  furnishes  the 
straw  used  in  the  manufacture  of  panama  hats.  Here 
also  grows  the  plant  that  yields  the  vegetable  ivory 
(Fig.  269).  The  native  people  make  great  use  of  the 
century  plant.  The  broad  leaves  are  used  for  paper  and 
for  thatching  huts.  The  sirup  obtained  from  the  leaves 
is  used  in  making  soap.  The  fibers  of  the  leaves  and  the 
roots  are  woven  into  sandals  and  sacks,  and  the  sharp 
spines  are  used  for  needles.  In  the  mountains  there  are 
mineral  resources  yet  to  be  developed. 

Cities.  Guayaquil  is  the  only  seaport  of  Ecuador. 
The  people  in  this  city  have  recently  learned  a  wonder- 
ful lesson  in  sanitation  from  the  work  that  was  done  in 
the  Panama  Canal  Zone.  They  have  cleared  away  old 
buildings,  put  in  sewers,  paved  their  streets,  and  exter- 
minated many  of  the  insect  pests,  thus  making  their 
city  much  more  healthful. 

From  Guayaquil  there  is  a  railroad  into  the  plateau 
district.  At  9000  feet  above  sea  level  and  almost  at  the 
equator  is  Quito,  the  capital  of  Ecuador  (Fig.  270). 


'  Vnrif-y  of  u:'.  Pan  American  Union 


Fig.  269.  The  tagua  palm,  which  grows  abundantly  in  Ecuador,  has  nuts  so 

hard  and  white  that  they  are  commonly  called  ivory  nuts.   Ecuador  exports 

millions  of  pounds  of  them  every  year,  to  be  made  into  buttons.  This  view 

shows  the  great  round  burrs  in  which  the  nuts  are  inclosed 

Future.  Ecuador  has  been  slow  to  develop  its 
resources.  We  may  expect  mining  to  be  increased,  rail- 
roads to  be  constructed,  the  rubber  trees  in  the  forests 
of  the  eastern  slope  to  be  tapped,  and  many  more 
plantations  to  be  established  in  the  narrow  plateau  belt 
between  the  lofty  ranges  of  the  Andes.  The  climate, 
especially  on  the  lowlands,  is  not  favorable  to  hard 
work,  and  as  yet  there  are  too  few  white  people  in 
Ecuador  to  make  it  progressive. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  State  five  interesting  and 
important  facts  about  Ecuador.  2.  How  can  you  explain  the 
backwardness  of  the  country  ?  3.  What  is  the  capital  ?  4.  What 
is  the  one  seaport  ?  5.  What  portion  of  the  country  is  most 
attractive  to  white  people  ?  6.  Explain  the  presence  of  gla- 
ciers in  Ecuador.  7.  What  are  the  chief  exports  ?  the  chief 
imports  ?    8.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  Spanish  word  ecuador  ? 


is;  ot  ilie  Pan  American  Lawn 


Fig.  270.   This  is  the  main  plaza,  or  square,  in  Quito,  the  capital  of  Ecuador. 
Around  it  are  grouped  the  public  buildings,  of  typical  South  American  archi- 
tecture.  Quito  is  nearer  the  equator  than  any  other  national  capital,  yet  it 
has  a  delightfully  temperate  climate.  Can  you  explain  this  ? 


140 


PERU 


Fig.  271.   This  is  one  of  the  plateau  towns  of  southern  Peru,  situated  on 

the  high,  level  land  between  the  mountains.   The  land  is  used  for  raising 

grain,  and  this  view  shows  the  mud  walls,  often  five  or  six  feet  high,  which 

separate  the  fields.   Can  you  explain  the  climate  here  ? 


Fig.  272.   Paita  has  a  fine  sheltered  harbor  and  is  one  of  the  ports  at  which 

steamers  from  Panama  call;  on  their  way  down  the  South  American  coast. 

The  houses  of  Paita  are  made  of  split  bamboo,  sometimes  covered  with 

plaster.   Why  is  this  material  used  ?  Locate  Paita  on  your  map 


PERU  ^e  Pacific  Ocean.  Such  winds  become  warmer  and  collect 

moisture  instead  of  giving  it  up,  so  the  long  western 

Much  of  our  interest  in  Peru  comes  from  the  stories  of  seacoast  of  Peru  is  a  desert.    The  rainfall  in  a  year  is 

Spanish  explorers,  or  from  the  history  of  the  wonderful  usually  less  than  five  inches.   In  some  places  rain  comes 

Inca  civilization.   The  Incas  were  the  rulers  of  the  native  only  about  once  in  seven  years.  See  map  opposite 'page  156. 

Indian  people  who  lived  in  the  high  plateau  portions  of  Narrow  strips  of  the  coastal  lowland  are  watered  by 

Peru  and  Bolivia  when  the  Spaniards  first  visited  these  streams  from  the  mountains,  and  near  these  streams 


countries  (Figs.  274,  276). 

When  the  Spaniards  came  to  Peru,  they  found  that 
the  Inca  people  had  vast  quantities  of  gold  and  silver 
which  were  used  to  ornament  their  temples  and  public 
buildings.  This  led  the  invaders,  who  had  a  great 
advantage  because  of  their  firearms,  to  conquer  the 
Incas  and  take  the  treasures  of  gold  and  silver  back  to 
Spain.  For  many  years  the  Spanish  people  controlled 
this  country,  but  in  1821,  at  about  the  same  time  that 
Venezuela,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Bolivia  secured  their 
freedom,  the  Peruvians  also  obtained 
independence  and  founded  a  republic. 

The  natural   regions  of    Peru   are 

(1)  a  desert  strip  along  the  coast; 

(2)  a  high  plateau  with  lofty  moun- 
tain ranges,  known  to  the  natives 
as  the  sierra  (Fig.  271);  and  (3)  the 
eastern  slope  and  lowland,  known  as 
the  montana.  Peru  is  in  the  earth- 
quake belt,  and  all  the  houses  are  built 
low  and  very  strong,  so  that  they 
may  not  be  shaken  down.  When 
young,  rugged  mountains  grow,  little 
but  sudden  slips  of  a  few  inches,  or  at 
most  a  few  feet,  take  place  along  great 
cracks,  or  fissures,  in  the  earth,  and 
these  movements  shake  the  earth. 

The  dry  coastal  belt  is  on  the  lee- 
ward side  of  the  high  mountains.  After 
the  southeast  trades  have  crossed  the 
Andes,  they  begin  their  descent  toward 


Fig.  273.   These  are  Indian  workers   planting 

sugar  cane  in  one  of  the  irrigated  valleys  of 

the  coastal  region  of  Peru.    How  is  the  water 

obtained  for  irrigation  in  this  arid  region  ? 


there    are    settlements    where    irrigation    is    practiced 
(Fig.  273). 

Cities  in  the  coastal  belt.  Callao  and  Mollendo  are  the 
chief  seaports  of  Peru.  See  map  on  page  135.  Callao  is 
the  port  for  Lima,  for  the  central  portion  of  the  coastal 
belt,  and  for  much  of  the  sierra  country.  Mollendo 
serves  the  southern  portion  of  the  Peruvian  sierra 
and  the  plateau  of  Bolivia.  Both  of  these  ports  are 
connected  by  rail  with  the  high  lands  of  the  interior. 
Paita  (Fig.  272)  is  the  city  from  which  the  petroleum 
of  northern  Peru  is  exported. 

Inland,  but  still  on  the  Pacific 
slope,  is  Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru ;  it 
is  located  on  a  river  and  has  a  good 
supply  of  water.  In  colonial  days 
this  city  was  the  center  of  Spanish 
authority  in  South  America  and  was 
the  home  of  many  wealthy  and  well- 
educated  people. 

Arequipa,  the  second  city  of  Peru, 
is  6000  feet  above  sea  level,  and  there- 
fore has  a  cool  climate.  Like  Lima, 
it  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  a  small 
mountain  stream  which  provides 
power  for  a  number  of  cotton  and  flour 
mills  and  a  few  chocolate  factories. 
They  are  smaller  than  the  mills  and 
factories  in  the  United  States,  but 
have  modern  machinery.  On  Mount 
Misti,  near  Arequipa,  is  located  a 
famous  astronomical  observatory. 


Underwood  k  Underwood 


PERU 


141 


The  ascent  to  the  sierra.  The  railroad  that  runs 
from  Lima  to  the  sierra  is  one  of  the  highest  in  the 
world.  When  it  reaches  the  great  western  range  of  the 
Andes,  it  climbs  to  an  elevation  of  16,000  feet  and  then 
passes  through  to  the  other  side  in  a  tunnel.  Most 
people  cannot  go  quickly  to  such  great  altitudes  without 
becoming  sick.  The  higher  air  is  thinner  than  the  air 
near  sea  level,  so  each  breath  taken  in  has  less  oxygen 
than  a  breath  taken  at  a  low  altitude.  To  avoid  sick- 
ness and  fainting,  passengers  are  supplied  with  tanks  of 
pure  oxygen,  from  which  they  breathe  in  the  oxygen 
through  rubber,  tubes. 

The  mountain  and  plateau  region  (sierra).  Most  of  the 
people  of  Peru  are  in  the  high  plateau  of  the  sierra 
(Fig.  271).  There,  where  the  Incas  led  their  strange  and 
marvelous  life,  the  Peruvians  of  to-day  have  made  their 
greatest  progress.  Mining  has  been  developed  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  plateau  region.  Copper,  silver,  tin,  and  gold 
have  been  found,  and  there  is  coal  near  by.    To-day 

copper  is  the  most 
important  of  the  min- 
eral products  of  Peru 
(Fig.  275).  Cerro  de  Pasco, 
at  an  elevation  of  over 
14,000  feet,  is  one  of  the 
greatest  mining  camps 
in  the  world. 

Cuzco  was  once  a  large 
city.  It  is  located  in 
one  of  the  high  valleys 
in  the  plateau,  and  was 
the  chief  city  of  the 
Incas.  They  obtained 
gold  from  the  mines 
and  stream  gravels  of 
the  region,  but  there  is 
much  less  gold-mining 
there  now. 

Grazing.  In  the  high 
sierra  region  grazing 
is  next  to  mining  in 
importance.  The  chief 
domestic  animals  are 
the  llamas  and  the  alpacas,  which  wander  about  on 
the  plateau  and  on  the  mountain  slopes  to  the  east  and 
west.  The  owners  of  the  flocks  have  great  estates  that 
are  called  haciendas.  The  native  people  serve  as  herders 
and  laborers  for  the  owners  of  the  large  estates. 

The  llama  (Fig.  279)  is  really  a  species  of  camel,  and 
stands  about  4  feet  6  or  8  inches  high.  The  males  are 
trained  to  carry  burdens.  They  will  carry  about 
100  pounds,  but  if  more  is  put  on  their  backs  they 


Fig.  274.  This  old  water-carrier  of  Cuzco 

is  a  descendant  of  the  great  Indian  race 

which,  under  the  Incas,  controlled  all 

Peru  before  the  Spanish  conquest 


E.  M.  Newman 


Fig.  275.   This  is  a  great  copper-smelting  plant  on  the  high  plateau  of 

Peru.   It  is  14,000  feet  above  sea  level  and  is  reached  by  a  railway  from 

the  coast.  Where  is  the  copper  sent  from  here  ?  What  other  metal  ores  are 

found  in  Peru  ?   Why  is  copper  the  most  important  ? 

will  lie  down,  and  no  power  on  earth  will  move  them 
until  the  extra  load  is  taken  off.  They  travel  from 
10  to  12  miles  a  day.  They  must  be  allowed  to  feed 
before  night  comes,  because  they  will  not  graze  when 
it  is  dark.  They  always  walk  slowly,  gazing  on  every 
side  and  holding  their  long  necks  arched.  The  Indian 
masters  become  very  fond  of  them  and  treat  them 
kindly.    Their  hair  is  used  to  make  cloth. 

The  llama  is  often  spoken  of  as  the  most  useful  animal 
in  South  America.  It  is  to  the  native  what  the  reindeer 
is  to  the  Eskimo,  the  camel  to  the  inhabitants  of  great 
deserts,  and  the  yak  to  the  people  of  the  high  plateau 
of  Tibet.  The  alpaca  and  the  llama  are  both  domesti- 
cated forms  of  the  wild  guanaco.  Here  in  South 
America  the  guanaco  lives  in  the  high  mountains  and 
among  the  foothills  east  of  the  southern  Andes,  and  is 
hunted  as  wild  game,  but  the  alpaca  and  llama  live  with 
the  people  just  as  our  sheep  and  cattle  do.  This  is  a 
very  surprising  fact,  for  most  of  our  domesticated  animals 
are  descended  from  wild  breeds  that  disappeared  long  ago. 

The  alpaca  is  smaller  than  the  llama,  standing  a 
little  over  3  feet  high.  The  fleece  of  the  alpaca  is  white 
or  black,  and  it  is  beautiful,  soft,  and  very  long. 

Another  wool-bearing  animal  of  Peru  is  the  vicuna. 
This  animal,  like  the  llama,  alpaca,  and  guanaco,  belongs 
to  the  camel  family.  The  vicuna  runs  wild  at  high  alti- 
tudes ;  in  fact,  it  is  not  found  below  an  elevation  of 
13,000  feet.  In  its  habits  the  vicuna  resembles  the  wild 
guanaco.  It  is  small  and  fleet-footed  and  lives  in  herds. 
Because  the  vicuna  lives  so  high  up  in  the  mountains,  it 
has  not  been  domesticated,  and  for  this  reason  the  supply 
of  wool  obtained  from  this  animal  is  scanty. 

Home  work.  I.  Look  up  the  history  of  the  Incas.  2.  Read  and 
report  about  the  llamas,  alpacas,  vicufias,  and  guanacos. 


142 


BOLIVIA 


Fig.  276.    This  is  part  of  an  old  Inca  palace  on  Titicaca  Island.    It  was 

built  nearly  a  thousand  years  ago  by  the  first  Inca.   The  huge  stone  blocks 

were  hewn  and  set  without  any  machinery,  and  they  fit  so  exactly  that 

it  is  hardly  possible  to  get  a  knife  blade  between  them 

The  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes.  This  region  of  Peru 
consists  of  the  lower  slopes  and  foothills  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Andes.  Here  the  rainfall  is  very  heavy,  and 
there  is  a  dense  tropical  forest  like  that  near  the  Amazon 
River  in  Brazil.  The  forest  is  wonderfully  rich  in  rubber 
and  hard  woods.  Rubber  is  being  exported  from  Iquitos, 
which  is  nearly  3000  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon 
and  at  the  head  of  navigation  for  ocean-going  vessels. 
Wild  native  people  live  in  the  forests,  but  the  few  whites 
who  live  in  eastern  Peru  stay  near  the  towns  which  are 
located  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers. 

Future.  Peru  has  been  much  more  prosperous  in  the 
past  than  it  is  to-day.  In  1884,  as  the  result  of  an  un- 
fortunate war,  Peru  lost  to  Chile  the  southern  part  of 
her  country,  where  there  were  rich  deposits  of  nitrate. 
In  that  transfer  Peru  lost  the  greatest  source  of  her 
prosperity.  There  remained,  however,  the  rich  metal 
ores  of  the  high  plateau  region,  which  have  always  been 
mined  extensively.  Peru  will  undoubtedly  continue  to 
be  an  important  mining  district.  Grazing  may  be  still 
further  developed,  and  the  great  forests  of  the  eastern 
slope  should  some  day  be  of  much  greater  value  to  the 
people  than  they  are  to-day. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  are  the  three  natural 
regions  of  Peru  ?  2.  What  are  the  rainfall  conditions  in  each 
region  ?  See  map  on  page  156.  3.  Explain  the  scanty  rainfall  inv 
the  coastal  belt.  4.  Where  do  most  of  the  people  live  ?  Why  ? 
What  do  they  do  ?  5.  What  are  the  chief  products  for  export  ? 
6.  What  do  the  Peruvians  import  ?  7.  From  what  countries  do 
the  imports  come  ?   8.  Why  is  Peru  not  a  manufacturing  country  ? 

9.  Name  the  capital  and  chief  seaports.  10.  What  route  should 
you  follow  from  New  York  to  Callao  ?  to  Iquitos  ?  11.  How 
should  you  travel  from  Lima  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  ?  12.  What  kind 
of  business  might  take  you  to  Cerro  de  Pasco  ?  13.  Why  might 
you  like  to  visit  Cuzco  ?  14.  Of  what  value  is  the  llama  to  the 
Peruvians  ?   15.  Of  what  value  is  the  alpaca  to  the  Peruvians  ? 


Fig.  277.   These  boys  are  poling  their  balsas  on  Lake  Titicaca.  The  boats 
are  made  of  rush  straw  plaited  and  tied  together,  and  are  often  fitted  with 
straw  sails.   Before  the  steamer  line  was  established  on  the  lake,  all  trans- 
portation was  by  balsa.    Why  are  the  boats  not  made  of  wood  ? 

BOLIVIA 

About  half  of  Bolivia  is  a  high  plateau  surrounded  by 
lofty  mountains  ;  here  Lake  Titicaca  is  located  (Figs.  244, 
277).  The  other  half  of  Bolivia  is  a  lowland.  See  map  on 
page  135.  The  plateau  is  between  12,000  and  13,000  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  in  elevation  it  is  second  only  to  the 
great  plateau  of  Tibet. 

Bolivia  is  now  one  of  the  two  countries  in  South 
America  without  any  coast  line.  The  coastal  portion  of 
Bolivia  was  taken  by  Chile  after  a  war  in  which  Chile 
defeated  Bolivia  and  Peru. 

Life  in  the  high  plateau.  In  the  mountains  great 
supplies  of  gold,  silver,  tin,  and  copper  have  been  found. 
Bolivia  ranks  second  in  the  world  in  the  production  of 
tin,  the  Straits  Settlements,  in  the  region  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  being  first  (Fig.  278).  See  Appendix,  Plate  B. 
Most  of  the  tin  from  Bolivia  is  shipped  by  way  of  the 
Panama  Canal  to  New  Jersey. 

The  people  who  live  on  the  plateau  use  Mollendo  in 
Peru  and  Antofagasta  in  Chile  for  their  seaports.   These 


Fig.  278.   The  dry,  barren  highlands  of  Bolivia  are  very  rich  in  minerals, 

and  mining  is  the  principal  industry.  This  is  one  of  the  tin-mining  centers. 

In  late  years  tin  has  replaced  silver  as  the  chief  export  of  Bolivia.    How 

is  the  ore  taken  to  the  coast  ?  To  what  countries  is  it  exported  ? 


BOLIVIA 


143 


coast  cities  are  connected  by  railroads  with  the  largest 
settlements  on  the  Bolivian  Plateau. 

In  some  parts  of  the  high  plateau  there  are  small 
farms  where  wheat,  corn,  barley,  and  potatoes  are  raised. 
Irrigation  is  usually  necessary.  Many  of  the  people  who 
live  on  the  plateau  care  for  sheep,  llamas,  alpacas,  and 
goats  (Fig.  279). 

There  is  very  little  wood  on  the  plateau,  either  for 
building  material  or  for  fuel.  The  houses  are  therefore 
made  of  stone  or  mud.  The  people  use  out-of-door  ovens, 
where  they  burn  brush,  cacti,  and  moss.  They  plan  to 
bake  once  a  week.  If  someone  should  discover  coal  in  or 
near  Bolivia,  it  would  be  a  great  help  to  the  people. 

Eastern  lowlands.  The  larger  part  of  Bolivia  lies  to 
the  east  of  the  crest  of  the  Andes.  This  section  of  the 
country  is  a  great  lowland  area  which  merges  with  the 
Amazon  Lowlands  in  the  north,  and  which  extends 
south  to  the  plains  of  Paraguay  and  Argentina. 

The  northern  part  of  this  lowland  area  has  developed 
faster  than  the  southern  part.  Here  are  forests  of 
rubber  trees  and  many  varieties  of  tropical  hard  woods. 
Besides  the  forest  lands  there  are  great  areas  of  rich 
agricultural  lands.  Coffee  and  cacao  are  the  chief  prod- 
ucts. This  part  of  Bolivia  has  access  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  by  way  of  the  Amazon  River.  By  using  the  rail- 
road which  has  been  built  around  the  Madeira  Falls, 
connection  can  be  made  with  the  Amazon,  and  thus 
cargoes  of  rubber  can  be  transported  down  the  river 
to  Belem. 

The  southern  part  of  Bolivia,  a  region  of  great  rolling 
plains,  has  as  yet  no  means  of  communication  with  the 
outside  world.    Before  much  progress  is  possible  here, 


CourteBj  of  Hir»m  Bingham 

Fig.  279.   Grazing  is  important  on  the  high  plateaus  of  Bolivia  and  Peru.   Here  is  a  flock  of  young 

alpacas  and,  in  the  center,  one  white  llama.   They  are  grazing  on  a  treeless  upland  pasture  15,000 

feet  above  the  sea.   The  alpacas  are  raised  for  their  soft,  thick  wool,  which  is  used  to  make  the 

finest  woolen  fabrics.  The  male  llamas  are  beasts  of  burden  in  this  part  of  South  America 


Fig.  280.  This  view  of  La  Paz  shows  its  location  in  a  deep  pocket  between 
the  mountains.  In  the  background  is  snow-capped  Illimani,  one  of  the 
highest  Andean  peaks.  Locate  La  Paz  on  your  map.  What  is  the  climate 
here  ?  Why  is  La  Paz  better  suited  to  be  the  capital  of  Bolivia  than  Sucre  ? 

railroads  must  be  built  from  the  river  port  of  Asuncidn 
in  Paraguay  to  points  in  eastern  Bolivia,  or,  better  still, 
direct  from  Rosario  or  Buenos  Aires  in  Argentina. 

Cities.  Potosi  is  one  of  the  principal  mining  centers 
for  both  silver  and  tin.  The  city  is  located  so  high  that 
the  air  there  is  always  cool,  or  even  cold.  Oruro  is  an- 
other mining  city  on  the  highland  and  the  terminus  of 
one  of  the  railroads.  Sucre  is  the  legal  capital  of  Bolivia, 
but  La  Paz,  which  has  a  railroad  connection  and  is  an 
important  business  center,  is  used  as  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. La  Paz  is  the  largest  city  of  Bolivia  and  is  two 
and  one  half  miles  above  sea  level  (Fig.  280). 

Future.  The  future  of  Bolivia  is  somewhat  uncertain. 
About  half  the  population  is  Indian,  and  native  Indians 
are  the  only  people  there  who  can  work  at  high  altitudes. 
There  is  a  scarcity  of  labor.  The  mines 
might  well  be  further  developed,  for 
in  mineral  resources  Bolivia  is  very 
wealthy.  The  lack  of  a  seaport  is  an- 
other great  disadvantage,  and  the  lack 
of  railroads  to  the  east  is  holding  back 
development. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Divide 
Bolivia  into  two  natural  regions.  2.  Which  of 
these  regions  has  most  of  the  people  to-day  ? 
3.  What  are  the  chief  occupations  ?  4.  What 
seaports  serve  Bolivia  ?  5.  Name  the  largest 
lake  in  South  America.  6.  Why  should  there 
be  little  rainfall  on  the  plateau  ? 

7.  With  little  rain  falling  on  the  plateau, 
how  do  you  account  for  the  large  lake  there  ? 

8.  What  would  help  Bolivia  most  to  increase 
its    population    and     promote     industries  ? 

9.  Name    the    official    capital    of    Bolivia. 

10.  Where  are  the  government  meetings 
held  ?  11.  Name  an  important  mining  city 
in  Bolivia. 


144 


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146 


CHILE 


tesj  or  Walter  S.  Tower 


Fig.  283.   This  is  Taltal,  one  of  the  nitrate  ports  of  Chile.   The  coast  is 

rugged,  barren,  and  forbidding,  and  the  nitrate  export  is  the  only  reason 

for  the  location  of  a  city  at  this  point.  What  are  the  other  nitrate  ports? 

Why  is  there  so  large  a  demand  for  Chilean  nitrate? 

east  of  the  mountains  in  southern  Argentina  is  dry.  The 
dry  belt  in  South  America  crosses  the  mountains  in  cen- 
tral Chile,  passing  from  the  west  coast  to  the  east.  See 
maps  on  and  opposite  page  1.56. 

A  remarkable  resource.  The  most  valuable  natural 
resource  of  Chile  is  found  in  the  desert  at  the  north. 
It  is  a  nitrate  of  soda  which  is  used  in  almost  all  the 
countries  of  the  world  to  fertilize  soils.  This  resource 
has  made  Chile  rich  and  famous.  Railroads  have  been 
built  into  the  desert,  and  hundreds  of  men  are  at  work 
producing  nitrate  for  market.  Everything  they  use 
must  be  brought  in.  All  the  building  material  for  their 
houses  and  the  mining  plants,  all  the  food,  and  all  the 
water  are  brought  from  a  distance.  Sometimes  the  water 
must  be  brought  more  than  a  hundred  miles  to  supply 
the  men  and  horses  and  to  use  at  the  nitrate  works. 

The  nitrate  is  found  in  the  earth.  Great  lumps  of  this 
mineral  are  dug  out  of  the  ground  and  placed  in  tanks 
of  hot  water  (Figs.  281,  282).  The  nitrate  is  dissolved, 
and  later  the  water,  with  the  nitrate  in  it,  is  allowed 
to  cool,  and  the  pure  nitrate  comes  out.    It  looks  a  good 


H^  ,.:yV                    ''"  Jp 

PUP' 

^NfMPs<» 

5PPP 

J^j™) 

■ 

1 

i   i 

Fig.  285.    This  is  a  small  seaport  town  south  of 
Valparaiso.   The  farmers  of  the  surrounding  agri- 
cultural country  bring  their  products  into  town 
on  the  backs  of  sturdy  little  donkeys 


©  £.  M.  Newnuw 

Fig.  284.   The  man  at  the  plow  is  a  Chilean  farmer  of  the  central  valley. 

He  makes  a  good  living  on  his  little  farm,  and  provides  a  comfortable  home 

for  his  wife  and  children.   What  products  does  he  raise  ?  In  what  months 

of  the  year  are  his  planting  and  harvesting  seasons  ? 


deal  like  coarse  salt.  It  is  then  put  into  bags  and  sent 
off  to  one  of  the  seaports  to  be  loaded  on  vessels  and 
taken  to  various  parts  of  the  world  (Fig.  283). 

Now  that  we  understand  that  water  will  dissolve  the 
nitrate  of  soda,  we  can  understand  why  the  Chilean 
people  do  not  want  it  to  rain  in  the  Atacama  Desert. 
If  rain  fell  abundantly,  the  water  would  sink  into  the 
ground,  dissolve  this  valuable  mineral,  and  little  by  little 
take  it  away  to 
the  ocean.  It  is 
because  of  the 
exceedingly  dry 
condition  of  the 
soil  that  these  de- 
posits have  been 
left  here. 

Almost  all  the 
world's  supply  of 
nitrate  is  pro- 
duced in  the  Ata- 
cama Desert  of 
northern  Chile. 
The  government 
places  a  heavy 
tax  on  all  of  the  product  that  is  sent  out  of  the  country. 
Because  of  these  export  taxes  the  Chilean  people  have 
very  few  other  taxes  to  pay. 

In  addition  to  the  great  natural  resource  of  nitrate  of 
soda  the  Chilean  people  have  discovered  large  deposits  of 
copper ;  they  have  also  extensive  forests  and  some  rich 
soils  in  the  valley  belt.  Nitrate  mining  is,  however,  the 
chief  occupation. 

Life  in  the  central  valley  of  Chile.  The  central  valley 
of  Chile  is  more  than  600  miles  long,  and  is  very  much 
like  the  rich  valley  of  California.  Here  the  people  have 
made  a  good  start  at  farming  (Fig.  284).  Many  tropical 
fruits  and  some  sugar  cane,  cotton,  and  rice  are  raised, 
and  this  valley  is  becoming  famous  for  its  vines  and  the 
wines  that  are  made  from  the  grapes.  Wheat  and  corn 
are  also  raised  here.  The  forests  yield  timber,  and  lumber 
is  an  important  product  of  export. 

Cities.  Santiago,  the  capital  of  Chile,  is  situated  1800 
feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  a  very  attractive  city  with 
a  delightful  climate,  beautiful  parks,  and  a  rapidly 
growing  industrial  life.  In  Santiago,  as  in  other  South 
American  cities,  almost  no  chimneys  are  seen,  but  be- 
cause of  its  high  elevation  more  and  more  of  the  people 
are  having  heating  plants  put  into  their  homes. 

There  are  no  good  harbors  on  the  Chilean  coast,  but 
at  very  great  expense  improvements  are  being  made 
offshore  at  Valparaiso,  so  that  vessels  may  anchor  and 
unload  cargoes  into  small  boats  (Fig.  287). 


CHILE 


147 


The  journey  from  Valparaiso  to  New  York,  a  distance 
of  about  4600  miles  by  way  of  the  Panama  Canal,  now 
takes  two  weeks.  The  route  is  very  near  to  a  north-and- 
south  line.  The  distance  from  Valparaiso  eastward  across 
the  Andes  to  Buenos  Aires,  the  capital  of  Argentina,  is 
900  miles.  The  journey  was  formerly  a  very  difficult  one, 
and  rather  than  cross  the  high  mountains  most  travelers 
went  around  Cape  Horn  or  through  the  Strait  of  Magellan. 
To-day  there  is  a  railroad  connecting  the  two  cities,  with 
excellent  modern  equipment  for  the  passenger  trains. 

Punta  Arenas,  a  Chilean  port  on  the  Strait  of  Magellan, 
and  the  southernmost  city  in  the  world,  ships  wool,  hides, 
whale  oil,  and  furs  to  Europe  and  the  United  States.  It 
is  a  coaling  station,  and  has  shops  where  repairs  may  be 

made  for  steam 
vessels. 

Summary.  The 
present  prosper- 
ous condition  of 
Chile  is  largely 
due  to  its  one 
great  natural  re- 
source from  the 
Desert  of  Ata- 
cama.  This  one 
resource  affords 
employment  for 
a  large  number  of 
people  in  Chile. 
Some  of  them 
are  engaged  in 
mining    the    ni- 


trate, others 


in 


Fig.  286.    This  is  the  "  Christ  of  the  Andes,"  the 

great  statue  erected  on  the  boundary  line  between 

Argentina  and  Chile  as  a  pledge  of  everlasting 

peace  between  the  two  nations 


preparing  it  for 
market,  and  still 


others  serve  as 
carriers  and  take 
provisions  and  water  to  the  workers  in  the  mines. 

Chile  is  mining  and  exporting  the  nitrate  at  an  ex- 
travagant rate.  Although  it  has  been  estimated  that  the 
present  supply  is  sufficient  to  last  from  thirty  to  one 
hundred  years  longer,  the  day  will  come  when  the  nitrate 
deposits  will  be  exhausted.  Then  Chile  must  depend 
upon  other  resources  for  its  prosperity. 

Because  Chile  extends  so  far  north  and  south,  it  is  a 
land  of  many  and  varied  resources.  In  the  Central  Valley 
farming  has  already  been  well  established,  and  the  value 
of  the  agricultural  products  is  increasing  each  year. 
Many  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  graze  on  the  fertile  grass- 
lands, and  the  people  who  are  not  engaged  in  tilling  the 
soil  are  occupied  in  stock-raising.  One  of  the  greatest 
future  resources  of  southern  Chile  lies  in  the  rich  forest 


-y  of  the  Pu>  Amerii 


Fig.  287.  The  harbor  of  Valparaiso  is  open  to  the  north  and  west, 
and  heavy  gales  often  make  anchorage  very  dangerous.  Therefore  the 
government  is  planning  to  build  a  great  breakwater  and  to  improve  the 
harbor  in  other  ways.  What  are  the  exports  and  imports  of  Valparaiso  ? 
With  what  countries  does  Chile  trade  most  ? 

lands  which  have  as  yet  been  little  used.  The  discovery 
of  coal  and  the  presence  of  water-power  may  lead  to  the 
development  of  manufacturing.  If  that  happens,  Chile 
may  become,  like  the  New  England  region,  an  industrial 
district,  and  her  manufactured  goods  may  be  sold  in 
Argentina,  a  great  agricultural  country,  or  in  Peru,  a 
great  mining  country. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  are  the  chief  occupa- 
tions of  the  Chilean  people  ?  2.  What  is  their  chief  seaport  ? 
their  capital  ?  3.  Why  is  the  northern  part  of  the  coast  dry  and 
the  southern  part  wet  ?  4.  Explain  why  the  Chilean  people  do 
not  want  it  to  rain  in  the  Atacama  Desert. 

5.  Why  should  they  develop  farming  and  manufacturing? 
6.  What  advantages  has  Chile  for  promoting  manufacturing  in- 
dustries ?  7.  Where  could  Chile  expect  to  sell  manufactured 
goods  ?  8.  Describe  the  routes  of  travel  from  Valparaiso  to  Buenos 
Aires  ;  from  Valparaiso  to  New  York. 

9.  Why  was  Valparaiso  so  named?  10.  Describe  the  process  of 
nitrate  mining.  11.  Why  does  Chile  put  a  tax  on  all  its  nitrate 
exports  ?  12.  What  other  mineral  is  found  in  Chile  ?  13.  What 
effect  has  the  Panama  Canal  had  on  the  trade  of  this  country  ? 


■Mppppaafi  pi  -■■»■ 


HiTTTTTTTn: 


1  "-■-  .5&£bt  " 


#t^i<*UJ 


?    ~    ^ 


4s| 


Fig.  288.   This  is  the  main  plaza  of  Santiago,  laid  out  by  the  founder  of 
the  city  in  1543.    Santiago  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley  where  semi- 
tropical  plants  and  trees  grow  in  great  abundance.    East  of  the  city  rises 
the  snow-capped  wall  of  the  Andes,  separating  Chile  from  Argentina 


148 


ARGENTINA 


j  •^•L 


Fig.  289.  The  Argentine  Pampa  is  a  vast,  unbroken  expanse  of  level  plain, 
covered,  except  in  the  cultivated  parts,  with  long,  luxuriant  prairie  grass. 
There  are  no  trees,  and  one  can  travel  a  thousand  miles  without  finding  a 
single  natural  variation  of  the  monotonous  flatness.   The  Pampa  has  long 


Courtesy  of  Walter  S.  Tower 


been  a  great  grazing  area.  This  is  a  typical  herd  of  Argentine  cattle  on  the 
Pampa.  They  are  splendid  specimens,  and  the  breed  is  being  constantly  im- 
proved by  the  importation  of  foreign  stock.  The  Pampa  is  nearly  as  large  as 
England  and  France  combined, yet  it  forms  only  about  one  fourth  of  Argentina 


ARGENTINA 

Argentina  is  the  second  largest  country  in  South. 
America  and  has  the  second  largest  population.  It  is  a 
vast,  rich  land  which  offers  great  opportunities. 

Natural  advantages.  Turn  to  the  maps  on  pages  145 
and  156  and  notice  the  natural  advantages  of  Argentina. 

(1)  Most  of  the  Parana  Lowlands  belong  to  Argentina. 

(2)  Over  much  of  the  country  there  is  enough  rainfall 
for  grazing  and  farming.  If  the  rainfall  were  notably 
heavy,  there  would  be  a  dense  forest ;  if  there  were  much 
less  rainfall,  the  lowland  would  be  a  semidesert  like  the 
region  farther  south.  (3)  This  country  is  in  the  temper- 
ate zone,  so  it  is  not  too  cold  or  too  warm  for  white 
people.  (4)  There  are  good  harbors  in  the  estuary  of  the 
Plata  River  and  farther  south  at  Bahia  Blanca.  (5)  There 
are  great  navigable  rivers  in  the  northern  portion,  and  in 
certain  of  the  rivers  there  are  opportunities  for  developing 
water-power.  (6)  Gold,  silver,  copper,  and  iron  have  been 
found  in  the  plateau  portion  at  the  northwest.  (7)  The 
levelness  of  the  land  surface  makes  railroad  building  easy. 


Occupations  and  products.  These  great  natural  advan- 
tages have  given  the  country  a  wonderful  start.  Argen- 
tina is  one  of  the  great  producers  of  cattle,  horses,  and 
sheep  (Fig.  289).  Wheat  and  corn  are  produced  in  great 
quantities  (Figs.  297,  299). 

In  the  northern  and  northwestern  parts  of  Argentina 
there  are  forested  areas  which  are  being  developed 
more  and  more.  Lumbering  has  become  an  important 
industry.  Many  of  the  woods  are  extremely  hard,  and 
one  is  known  as  quebracho,  which  means  ax-breaker 
(Fig.  290).  The  wood  of  the  quebracho  is  so  heavy  that 
it  will  not  float.  Besides  being  valuable  for  timber  the 
tree  has  been  found  to  yield  tannin,  which  is  used  in 
making  leather. 

In  the  highland  region  at  the  northwest  life  is  quite 
different  from  that  in  the  lowland  region.  There  the 
people  are  interested  in  mining.  Formerly  the  ores  were 
sent  on  the  backs  of  mules  over  the  high  mountains  and 
across  the  desert  of  Chile  to  the  Pacific  coast.  Now  there 
is  a  railway  into  the  district,  by  which  most  of  the  metr 
als  are  taken  to  Rosario  for  shipment  to  other  countries. 


Courtesy  of  Walter  ts.  Tower 


Courtesy  of  Walter  8.  Tow 


Fig.  290.   These  cars  are  loaded  with  logs  of  the  quebracho  tree,  which  grows 
in  northern  Argentina.   Quebracho  is  a  very  hard  wood,  useful  for  cabinet- 
making,  railroad  ties,  and  paving  blocks.   The  quebrachos  are  being  cut  so 
fast  that  laws  must  soon  be  made  to  conserve  the  supply 


Fig.  291.   This  is  a  little  village  in  arid  San  Juan  Province,  where  the 

people  earn  their  living  by  gathering  the  woody  roots  of  drought-resisting 

bushes,  which  they  dig  out  of  the  ground.   The  sticks  in  the  foreground 

will  be  used  to  make  charcoal  or  sold  to  the  railroads  for  fuel 


ARGENTINA 


149 


Near  the  mines  many  people  are  engaged  in  raising 
vegetables  and  fruits  for  the  use  of  the  mining  popula- 
tion. Peaches,  figs,  pears,  grapes,  and  oranges  are  pro- 
duced. Some  wheat  also  is  raised  here,  but  not  in  such 
large  fields  as  in  the  lowlands. 

El  Gran  Chaco.  West  of  the  Paraguay  River  and  ex- 
tending through  a  part  of  northern  Argentina,  across 
western  Paraguay,  and  into  Bolivia  there  is  a  vast  area 
called  El  Gran  Chaco,  of  which  little  is  known.  Indian 
tribes  live  there,  and  a  few  of  the  rivers  have  been  ex- 
plored. Railroads  have  been  planned  to  cross  it.  At  the 
western  margin,  where  there  are  streams  from  the  moun- 
tains, some  agriculture  has  been  started.  In  places  cattle 
are  raised  (Fig.  293),  and  from  the  forests  in  the  south 


flHBI 

^ 

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Courtesy  o!  Walter  8.  Tower 

Fig.  292.   This  is  a  typical  town  of  northwestern  Argentina,  barricaded  on 

the  west  by  the  barren  ridges  of  the  Andes,  and  open  on  the  east  to  the 

great  Argentine  plain.   The  days  are  always  sunny  here,  and  irrigation  is 

needed  for  agriculture.   Why  is  there  little  or  no  rain  ? 

quebracho  wood  and  tannin  are  secured  in  large  quanti- 
ties. The  quebracho  wood  and  tannin  exported  each  year 
are  worth  more  than  ten  million  dollars.  Over  4000  men 
are  now  engaged  by  one  company  in  this  business. 

The  Pampa.  The  greatest  single  natural  resource  of  this 
country  is  the  extensive  lowland  area  of  rich  soils  called 
the  Pampa,  west  and  southwest  of  Buenos  Aires. 

The  term  "  pampa  "  comes  from  the  Indian  language, 
and  means  any  flat  country,  whether  it  is  high  or  low, 
dry  or  wet;  but  the  term  "the  Pampa"  seems  most 
appropriately  applied  to  the  great  rich  lowland  coun- 
try of  Argentina,  stretching  from  the  Salado  River 
on  the  north  to  the  Negro  River  on  the  south,  and 
from  the  Parana  and  Paraguay  rivers  to  the  base  of 
the  Andes  Mountains. 

The  Pampa  is  one  of  the  most  remarkably  flat  places 
in  the  world.  The  soils  of  which  it  is  composed  were 
washed  from  the  mountains  into  an  interior  sea  by 
rivers,  and  spread  out  eastward  in  the  form  of  delta 
deposits.  Little  by  little  the  sea  disappeared,  leaving 
the  broad  delta  plains  exposed  as  dry  land. 

The  Pampa  is  the  wonderful  wheat  land  of  South 
America,  and  the  land  where  millions  of  sheep  and 
cattle  roam  as  they  feed  on  the  tall,  waving  grasses  of 


Courtesy  of  Walter  8.  Tower 

Fig.  293.  These  men  are  herdsmen  of  the  Argentine  Chaco.  They  wear 
enormous  stiffened  leather  guards  to  protect  them  from  the  dense  under- 
growth as  they  ride  through  the  forests.  How  does  the  plain  of  the  Chaco 
differ  from  the  plain  of  the  Pampa?  Do  the  Pampa  herdsmen  have  to 
wear  leather  guards  ? 

the  fertile  plains.  There  are  railroads  which  run  in 
perfectly  straight  lines  for  miles  and  miles  across  the 
Pampa.  In  many  parts  no  bridges,  no  tunnels,  no  rock- 
cutting  or  filling  were  necessary  in  constructing  the  rail- 
roads. Over  broad  areas  there  are  no  hills  or  elevations 
of  any  kind  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach  (Figs.  289,  295). 
The  largest  objects  seen  may  be  a  few  trees  around 
some  ranchman's  home,  or  possibly  a  windmill,  which 
is  the  common  sign  of  one  of  the  better  homes  in  the 
country.   With  these  exceptions  the  horizon  is  unbroken. 


Courtesy  of  Waiter  8.  Tower 

Fig.  294.   The  west  central  part  of  Argentina  is  a  semidesert  country, 
similar  to  the  desert  of  Arizona.    The  picture  shows  the  rough,  bowlder- 
strewn  ground,  the  scrubby  bush  growth,  and  the  twisted  locust  tree.  What 
do  you  suppose  the  boy  has  in  the  tin  can  hung  from  his  saddle  ? 


150 


ARGENTINA 


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S.-VM, 

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Courteey  of  Walter  8.  Tower 

Fig.  295.  This  great  steam  plow  is  breaking  rich,  new  soil  on  a  part  of  the 

Pampa  which  has  never  been  cultivated  before.  The  levelness,  the  fertility 

of  the  soil,  and  a  sufficient  rainfall  make  the  Pampa  a  great  agricultural 

region.   What  are  the  important  crops  ? 

Life  on  the  Pampa.  The  Pampa  is  a  land  where  every- 
body learns  to  ride  horseback.  The  ranchmen  go  on 
horseback  to  visit  the  men  who  care  for  the  great  herds 
of  cattle  or  flocks  of  sheep,  and  the  children  soon  learn 
to  ride  the  swiftest  of  horses. 

The  weather  at  times  becomes  very  warm ;  and  if  rain 
fails  to  come,  as  it  sometimes  does,  the  farmers  lose  their 
crops.  This  is  especially  true  through  the  western  portion 
of  the  lowland ;  here  conditions  are  similar  to  those  in 
western  Kansas,  Nebraska,  or  Oklahoma,  where  there  are 
occasional  dry  seasons  that  make  the  farmers  very  un- 
happy. In  any  country,  people  who  have  their  farms 
at  the  margin  of  the  well-watered  land  and  near  poorly 
watered  land  must  count  on  losing  a  crop  every  few  years 
because  of  a  dry  season  or  because  of  drying  winds. 

Unfortunately  there  are  portions  of  this  lowland  region 
where  the  miserable  little  ticks,  fleas,  and  mosquitoes  are 
so  numerous  that  life  is  unendurable.  Dragon  flies,  which 
feed  on  mosquitoes,  have  been  seen  flying  in  clouds  from 
10  to  12  feet  thick,  so  that  they  even  darken  the  sky. 
There  is  another  very  serious  pest  which  the  farmers  on 
the  Pampa  dread,  and  that  is  the  locust.    As  they  pass 


over  the  country  they  eat  the  corn  and  wheat,  and  some- 
times an  entire  crop  is  destroyed  in  twenty-four  hours. 
Such  great  migrations  of  the  locust  do  not  come  every 
year,  and  some  day  scientists  will  learn  how  to  fight 
them  and  perhaps  how  to  exterminate  them. 

Life  in  southern  Argentina.  This  part  of  Argentina 
was  formerly  called  Patagonia.  It  was  really  "  no  man's 
land,"  but  in  1881  the  southern  portion  of  the  continent, 
including  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  was  divided  be- 
tween Chile  and  the 
republic  of  Argentina. 
Since  then  railroads 
have  been  built  and 
many  people  have  gone 
there  to  live.  The  cli- 
mate is  dry  in  summer, 
but  by  irrigating  the 
soils  it  is  now  possible 
to  raise  vegetables  and 
fruits.  Grazing  is  the 
chief  occupation. 

The  native  Patagonian 
people  are  large,  strong 
Indians,  who  still  live  in 
a  primitive  way.  They 
are  great  hunters,  and 
as  yet  they  do  not  use 
firearms  as  white  men 

do.  Instead,  they  have  bolas,  which  are  made  of  two 
or  three  small  stones  covered  with  skin  and  fastened 
together  by  strings  or  rawhide.  They  become  very  skill- 
ful in  throwing  these  about  the  legs,  neck,  or  body  of  an 
animal  and  tripping  it  up.  Even  birds  are  sometimes 
caught  in  this  way  just  as  they  are  rising  from  the 
ground.   The  Indians  kill  great  numbers  of  the  guanacos 


Fig.  296.    This  is  a  clump  of  the  tall, 

flowering  grass  which  is  known  as  "Pampa 

grass,"  but  which  grows  on  the  hills  and 

mountain  slopes  of  Argentina 


Courtesj  of  Walter  8.  Tower 


Big.  297.  These  wagons  are  loaded  with  grain  raised  on  the  Pampa,  and 
are  on  their  way  to  the  nearest  market  or  shipping  point.  Each  wagon 
in  drawn  by  six  horses,  and  some  of  the  traces  are  attached  to  the  hubs  of 
the  wheels.    Compare  the  size  of  the  wheels  with  the  horses.    These 


high-wheeled  carts  are  typical  of  all  South  America  and  are  well  adapted 
for  traveling  over  the  muddy  roads  which  are  so  common  in  the  regions  of 
abundant  rain.  What  different  kinds  of  grain  might  these  bags  contain  ? 
During  what  month  is  wheat  harvested  in  Argentina  ?  See  Appendix,  p.  iv 


ARGENTINA 


151 


for  food,  and  use  the  skins  for  clothing  and  bedding. 
They  depend  also  upon  the  rhea,  or  South  American 
ostrich,  for  food.  This  bird  has  short  wings  and  cannot 
fly  well.    It  counts  on  running  away  from  its  enemies. 

Home  work.  1.  Place  the  chief  seaports  of  South  America  on 
your  outline  map.  2.  Read  about  the  Patagonian  Indians  in  a 
good  reference  book.  3.  Read  about  Tierra  del  Fuego.  See  Appen- 
dix, page  i,  for  list  of  reference  books. 

Cities.  Buenos  Aires,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  is  now 
the  largest  city  in  South  America  (Fig.  298).  About  one 
fifth  of  the  entire  population  of  Argentina  live  in  this 
city.  Like  Chicago,  Buenos  Aires  is  built  on  flat  land,  and 
most  of  the  streets  cross  at  right  angles.  There  are  no 
hills  like  those  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  no  beautiful  islands; 
and  yet,  like  Chicago,  the  city  has  a  great  water  front, 
Again,  like  Chicago,  Buenos  Aires  has  the  advantage 
of  a  wonderful  system  of  parks  and  playgrounds. 
There  are  seventy-two  parks  in  Buenos  Aires,  and 
they  are  being  improved  and  enlarged  every  year. 

The  harbor  at 
Buenos  Aires  was 
not  satisfactory, 
and  on  account  of 
this  fact  a  great 
deal  of  dredging 
has  been  done  to 
deepen  the  water. 
A  very  excellent 
system  of  stone 
docks  extends  for 
miles  along  the 
waterfront.  The 
Plata  River  is  a 
shallow  estuary 
and  not  like  a  real  river.  The  land  sank  and  the  sea 
water  came  into  tbe  mouth  of  the  river,  just  as  it  did 
when  Chesapeake  Bay  was  made  (Fig.  300). 

British  and  German  people  have  invested  largeamounts 
of  money  in  Buenos  Aires  and  throughout  Argentina. 
Many  of  the  storekeepers  are  foreigners ;  some  are 
Spanish,  others  Portuguese,  others  Italian.  Spanish  is 
the  language  most  commonly  spoken ;  Buenos  Aires 
is,  in  fact,  the  largest  Spanish-speaking  city  in  the 
world,  —  larger  than  any  city  in  Spain. 

Rosario,  the  second  largest  city  in  Argentina,  now  has 
a  good  harbor  which  has  been  deepened  by  dredging. 
There  are  large  stockyards  and  refrigerating  plants 
located  in  the  city.  Before  the  days  of  freezing  meats 
cattle  were  killed  chiefly  for  the  hides  and  tallow.  Some 
of  the  meat  was  salted,  but  most  of  it  was  thrown  away. 
Now  the  meats  are  frozen  and  sent  to  distant  ports, 
chiefly  in  western  Europe.  This  has  meant  a  great  increase 


Courtesy  of  tbe  Pan  American  Union 

Fig.  298.   The  National  Capitol  at  Buenos  Aires 

is  not  unlike  our  own  Capitol  at  Washington  in 

general  appearance,  but  is  much  more  elaborately 

decorated  in  the  typical  South  American  style 


Courtesy  of  Walti 


Fig.  299.    These  canvas-covered   stacks  contain  more  than  two  million 

bushels  of  grain  waiting  to  be  shipped  to  Buenos  Aires  by  rail.    Why  is 

grain  stacked  in  the  open  in  Argentina  instead  of  being  stored  in  grain 

elevators  ?   Where  will  it  be  sent  from  Buenos  Aires  ? 


in  profits  for  those  engaged  in  raising  cattle  and  sheep. 
It  has  increased  the  value  of  the  lands,  caused  railroads 
to  be  built,  and  brought  many  more  people  to  Argentina. 

Farther  south  along  the  coast  is  Bahia  Blanca,  and 
from  there  railroads  extend  to  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. That  city  has  been  growing  very  rapidly,  and  large 
quantities  of  wool  and  wheat  are  shipped  from  there  to 
the  United  States  and  Europe  every  year. 

Mendoza  is  one  of  the  most  important  inland  cities. 
Here,  by  means  of  irrigation,  the  people  have  cultivated 
large  vineyards,  and  a  great  deal  of  wine  is  made.  Now 
that  Mendoza  has  a  railroad  connection  with  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coasts,  more  of  the  products  of  this  part  of 
the  country  are  reaching  the  larger  markets  of  South 
America. 

Ctfrdoba  is  a  thriving  city  on  the  western  margin  of 
the  richest  wheat  district  in  Argentina.  It  is  also  in  the 
midst  of  the  flax-raising  area  and  has  a  number  of  mills 
where  the  oil  is  extracted  from  the  flax  seeds. 

Tucuman,  another  inland  city,  is  the  center  of  the 
Argentine  sugar-producing  area  and  has  sugar  refineries. 


©  E.  H.  N«wmin 


Fig.  300.   The  docks  at  Buenos  Aires  are  lined  with  elevators  in  which 

grain  is  stored  awaiting  shipment.   The  harbor  is  man-made,  and  the  port 

one  of  the  best  equipped  in  the  world,  ranking  second  among  the  ports  of 

the  two  Americas.   What  is  the  first  port  ? 


152 


PARAGUAY 


Summary.  When  thinking  of  Argentina,  remember 
that  it  is,  first,  a  wonderful  farming  and  grazing  country, 
and  that  the  raising  of  stock  has  led  to  meat-packing, 
dairying,  and  the  refrigerating  of  meat  for  export. 

If  we  visited  this  country,  we  should  see  the  farmers 
using  the  same  kind  of  implements  and  machines  as  are 
used  in  the  United  States ;  and  about  their  homes  and 
in  the  pastures  we  should  see  windmills  that  were  shipped 
from  the  United  States.  These  are  indications  of  the 
large  trade  which  we  are  building  up  with  Argentina. 


Counesj  of  Walter  S.  Tower 

Fig.  301.  When  the  Argentine  fishermen  return  from  their  fishing  trips  they 
have  to  haul  their  boats  ashore,  for  there  are  very  few  harbors  where  they  can 
anchor  safely.  Compare  the  coast  line  of  Argentina  with  that  of  New  England. 
In  what  way  are  the  New  England  fishermen  better  off  than  the  Argentinos  ? 

The  notable  contrast  with  the  United  States  is  that  there 
is  very  little  industrial  life  in  Argentina.  The  mechani- 
cal arts  have  not  been  developed,  and  it  is  not  likely  that 
Argentina  will  become  a  great  industrial  country.  Fuel 
is  scarce  and  the  people  are  not  mechanics.  Argentina 
imports  coal.  There  are  flour  mills,  sugar  mills,  and  some 
weaving  mills,  but  most  of  the  machinery  and  manufac- 
tured goods  that  are  needed  are  brought  to  Argentina  in 
exchange  for  raw  materials. 

Argentina  is  undoubtedly  destined  to  become  a  great 
agricultural  nation.  More  and  more  people  will  emi- 
grate from  the  crowded  industrial  centers  of  Europe  to 
the  farming  lands  of  the  Pampa.  With  the  increase  of 
population,  the  extension  of  railroads,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  more  routes  of  communication  with  the  markets 
of  Europe  and  North  America,  Argentina  should  become 
one  of  the  richest  countries  of  the  world. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  are  the  great  natural 
advantages  of  Argentina  ?  2.  What  are  its  chief  disadvantages  ? 
3.  Make  a  list  of  the  chief  exports;  the  chief  imports.  4.  What  is 
the  largest  city  in  South  America  ? 

5.  Why  is  there  a  great  grassland  in  the  Parana"  Lowlands  and 
a  dense  forest  in  the  lowlands  of  the  Amazon  ?  6.  Why  is  a  por- 
tion of  Argentina  a  semidesert  ?  7.  From  what  country  do  the 
people  import  their  farming  machinery  ? 

8.  How  did  the  improvements  in  refrigerating  meats  help  Argen- 
tina ?  9.  What  does  the  country  need  ?  10.  What  especially  in- 
teresting facts  about  Argentina  have  you  learned  from  the  pictures  ? 


PARAGUAY 

Paraguay  is  a  little  larger  than  the  state  of  California, 
and  is  one  of  the  two  countries  in  South  America  without 
any  seacoast.  It  is  an  extensive  lowland  country',  a  part 
of  the  Parana  Lowlands,  where  most  of  the  land  is 
from  100  to  500  feet  above  sea  level. 

The  Paraguay  River  divides  this  country  into  two 
somewhat  distinct  parts.  In  the  east  there  are  forests, 
and  also  large  groves  of  orange  trees  and  many  banana 
trees.  The  forest  is  broken  here  and  there  by  open  pas- 
ture lands  and  fields  of  brilliant  flowers.  On  the  west  is 
the  Chaco,  a  land  of  broad,  open  fields  with  here  and 
there  quebracho  forests.  A  few  palms  are  scattered  about 
on  the  plains.  In  the  western  part  of  the  country  the 
rivers  wind  about  through  such  long  channels  that  much 


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Fig.  302.   The  forest  on  both  sides  of  the  Paraguay  River  is  rich  in  valuable 

quebracho  trees,  and  lumbering  is  extensively  carried  on.    These  lumbermen 

are  resting  while  they  cook  their  mid-day  meal.   The  quebracho  logs  are 

carried  down  the  river  in  boats,  because  they  are  too  heavy  to  float 

of  the  water  is  evaporated  before  the  streams  reach 
the  Paraguay  River.  It  is  a  region  of  little  rainfall, 
but  there  is  enough  to  nourish  a  tall  grass  that  serves 
for  pasture. 

The  Parana  and  Paraguay  rivers  are  navigable,  and 
shipments  may  be  made  down  the  river  to  Rosario, 
Buenos  Aires,  and  Montevideo.  Boats  can  sail  1300  miles 
on  the  Paraguay. 

Occupations.  The  chief  occupation  is  just  what  would 
be  expected  in  a  grassland  region  without  severely  cold 
weather.  It  is  grazing.  Lumbering  is  important  and  will 
increase  as  the  hard  woods  of  the  South  American  forests 
are  used  more  and  more  in  building  (Fig.  302).  Many 
people  are  interested  in  extracting  tannin  from  the 
quebracho  tree,  and  many  others  are  engaged  in  selling 
the  wood  of  that  tree  as  lumber. 


PARAGUAY 


153 


Paraguay  tea  is  known  in  Spanish  as  yerba  mate 
(Fig.  304).  It  was  here  that  the  Indians  introduced  this 
tea  to  the  Spaniards.  The  native  people  and  many 
others  in  South  America  prefer  the  mate  to  coffee  or 
to  the  varieties  of  tea  from  Japan  or  Ceylon  that  are 
so  commonly  used  in  North  America  and  Europe.  They 
drink  the  mate  through  a  little  tube.  The  tea  is  held 
in  a  cup  made  of  a  gourd,  and  it  is  the  custom  of  the 
people  to  take  a  little  drink  of  tea  every  few  hours.  It 
is  a  very  common  sight  to  see  them  stand  around  with 
the  gourds  and  the  little  tubes  through  which  they  draw 

the  tea  up  into  their 
mouths.  This  tea  is 
now  being  exported 
to  distant  lands.  It 
is  for  sale  in  the 
larger  cities  of  the 
United  States. 

Oranges  are  so 
common  in  Paraguay 
that  a  traveler  can 
get  a  dozen  for  a 
cent.  Almost  every 
Paraguayan  will  suck 
the  juice  of  twenty 
or  thirty  oranges  a 
day.  The  trees  grow 
on  the  banks  of  the 
rivers,  in  the  gorges, 
near  the  ranches,  far 
back  in  the  forests, 
—  in  fact,  almost 
everywhere  in  Para- 
guay. Great  carts  drawn  by  three  yokes  of  oxen,  each 
cart  carrying  about  5000  oranges,  are  used  in  bringing 
the  fruit  to  the  banks  of  the  river  for  shipment  to 
Buenos  Aires  and  Montevideo.  The  oranges  grow  in  such 
abundance  that  it  is  impossible  to  use  all  of  them. 
Thousands  are  devoured  by  birds,  monkeys,  and  other 
animals,  and  yet  each  year  tons  and  tons  of  oranges  drop 
to  the  ground  and  rot. 

Insect  pests.  Paraguay  is  a  land  where  the  mosqui- 
toes, fleas,  and  flies  are  terrible  pests.  Scientific  methods 
should  be  used  to  kill  off  these  insects,  so  that  life  here 
may  be  more  bearable. 

Cities.  Asunci6n  is  the  capital  of  Paraguay.  It  is 
reached  by  boats  that  come  up  the  river  from  Rosario 
and  Buenos  Aires  (Fig.  305). 

Villa  Rica,  the  second  largest  city  in  Paraguay,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  one  important  railway  in  the  state.  It  serves 
as  a  collecting  center  for  the  agricultural  products  of 
southern  Paraguay. 


Cuurtesj  of  Uie  Pan  American  Union 

Fig.  303.    This   Paraguayan   woman  is   at 

work  making  the  fine  lace  for  which  her 

country  is  famous.   Where  does  the  thread 

which  she  uses  come  from  ? 


•  m  ■■"'■•4  •v.^MSiJw^'! 

Courtei*  of  the  tan  American  Union 


Fig.  304.  These  men  are  Paraguayan  mate  gatherers.  The  yerba  mats'  is 
South  American  holly,  which  grows  abundantly  in  Paraguay  and  southern 
Brazil.  Each  day  the  gatherers  pick  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  the  mate,  bring- 
ing it  in  on  their  shoulders  to  the  camp,  where  it  will  be  cured  over  a  fire 

Concepci6n  is  the  third  city  of  importance  in  Paraguay. 
It  is  situated  on  the  Paraguay  River  at  the  head  of  navi- 
gation for  large  river  vessels  and  is  therefore  a  commercial 
center  of  some  importance. 

Future.  Paraguay  will  undoubtedly  develop  its  rich 
agricultural  lands  ;  but  before  it  can  really  become  pros- 
perous, more  railways  must  be  built  and  more  white 
people  must  come  to  live  in  the  country. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Name  the  two  countries 
of  South  America  that  are  without  coast  lines.  2.  How  does 
Paraguay  carry  on  commerce  ?  3.  How  would  a  traveler 
reach  the  capital  ?  4.  What  two  crops  are  most  remarkable  ? 
5.  What  product  from  Paraguay  is  important  to  the  shoe 
business  ?  6.  How  may  living  conditions  be  improved  in 
Paraguay  ?    7.  On  what  does  its  future  progress  depend  ? 


Fig.  305.  Asuncion,  the  capital  of  Paraguay,  is  situated  on  the  Para- 
guay River.  Paraguay  has  no  seacoast,  and  the  Paraguay  River  is  the 
most  important  highway  into  the  country.  Asuncion  is  therefore  an  impor- 
tant river  port.  What  products  of  Paraguay  are  sent  down  the  river  to 
Buenos  Aires  for  export? 


151 


URUGUAY 


Courtesy  of  Walter  8.  Tower 

Fig.  306.  This  is  one  of  the  modern  steam  threshing  outfits  in  use  in 
Uruguay.  Although  nearly  all  the  land  of  the  republic  is  suited  to  agri- 
culture, only  about  one  twentieth  of  it  is  under  cultivation  to-day. 
What  conditions  throughout  the  world  will  cause  Uruguay  to  change 
gradually  from  stock-raising  to  agriculture? 

.  URUGUAY 

This  country  is  a  great  pasture  land.    Like  much  of 


about  the  city.  It  can  be  seen  for  12  miles  out  to  sea. 
There  is  a  lighthouse  on  the  mount,  and  the  revolving 
light  in  the  top  can  be  seen  for  25  miles.  The  city  is 
built  on  a  point  of  land  between  the  Atlantic  and  a 
large  bay. 

The  people  of  Uruguay  all  seem  to  want  to  live  in 
Montevideo.  The  city  now  has  about  one  third  of  the 
entire  population  of  the  country.  Farmers  and  ranchmen 
either  have  city  homes  or  look  forward  to  having  them. 

Montevideo  is  the  capital  of  Uruguay,  and  from  its 
harbor  ships  leave  with  their  great  cargoes  of  wool,  beef, 
and  hides  for  ports  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

The  sea  breezes  pass  through  the  city  from  one  body  of 
water  to  the  other.  In  the  bay  there  is  room  for  500  ves- 
sels. Opposite  Montevideo  the  Plata  estuary  is  64  miles 
wide,  and  at  Buenos  Aires,  210  miles  farther  upstream, 
it  is  34  miles  wide.  There  are  numerous  shoals  and  sand 
bars  in  the  river,  so  that  navigation  is  difficult. 

Occasionally  the  pampero,  or  storm  wind  of  the  Pampa, 


Argentina,  Uruguay  is  fortunate  in  its  surface  features,  sweeps  across  this  estuary  of  the  Plata  with  great  vio- 

in  the  richness  of  its  soils,  and  in  its  good  harbor  and  lence  and  whips  the  shallow  water  into  a  very  rough 

its  one  large  navigable  river.    The  prevailing  coast  winds  sea.   At  such  times  vessels  are  in  great  danger  of  being 

are  from  the  southeast,  and  they  bring  in  an  abundance  driven  upon  sand  bars  and  wrecked, 
of  moisture,  so  that  all  of  Uruguay  is  well  watered.   The         Future.    For  its  size  Uruguay  is  the  most  fortunate 

climate  is  mild  and  healthful.     In  January,  which  is  country  in  South  America.    Its  location,  climate,  soils, 

the  warmest  month,  the  average  temperature  is  about  surface  features,  and  harbor  promise  a  prosperous  agri- 

80°  Fahrenheit,  and  in  July,  the  coldest  month  of  the  cultural  life  with  an  ever-increasing  commerce. 


year,  the  temperature  is  commonly  about  55°.  The 
lowest  temperature  that  has  been  observed  is  not  down 
to  the  freezing  point. 

Everything  that  will  grow  in  temperate  or  subtropical 
climates  will  grow  in  Uruguay.  The 
grazing  of  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses 
is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  people 
(Figs.  307,  308),  but  general  farming  is 
becoming  more  and  more  important 
(Fig.  306).  Large  quantities  of  grain 
and  fruit  are  raised. 

Commerce.  The  grazing  has  led  to 
the  establishment  of  certain  industries 
which  grow  naturally  out  of  the  raising 
of  stock.  Meat-packing  and  the  refrig- 
erating of  meat  for  shipment  occupy 
the  time  of  a  large  number  of  people. 
Great  quantities  of  beef  extract  are 
made  for  export. 

Cities.  Montevideo  is  a  modern, 
healthful  city  with  a  very  pleasant 
climate  (Figs.  309,  310).  The  name 
"  Montevideo  "  comes  from  the  hill,  or 
mount,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  505 
feet  and  is  the  most  prominent  feature 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  are  the  chief  occupa- 
tions of  the  people  ?  2.  Name  and  give  the  location  of  the  capital. 
3.  What  has  Uruguay  to  export '!  4.  How  does  the  climate  of 
Uruguay  affect  the  occupations  ?  5.  What  are  the  prevailing 
coast  winds  ?    6.  Why  is  navigation  in  the  Plata  River  difficult  ? 


Courteej  of  Walter  S.  Tower 

Fig.  307.   Most  of  Uruguay  is  rolling,  grassy  country  dotted  with  scattered  clumps  of  trees.    The 

soil,  temperature,  and  rainfall  are  all  favorable  to  agriculture,  but  at  present  more  than  four  fifths 

of  the  total  area  of  Uruguay  is  devoted  to  grazing.    Sheep-raising  is  the  greatest  industry,  and 

thousands  of  flocks  like  this  one  graze  over  the  country 


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SOUTH  AMERICA 

POLITICAL  MAP 
SHOWING  NATURAL  REGIONS 

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I  Uplands 

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J  mountains 

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FALKLAND  ISLANDS 


155 


FALKLAND  ISLANDS 

The  Falkland  Islands  belong  to  the  British.  They 
are  in  a  very  stormy  part  of  the  ocean;  no  trees  grow 
there,  and  all  the  wood  which  the  people  use  in  building 
their  homes  or  in  shipbuilding  must  be  imported.  Peat 
has  been  found  and  is  used  as  fuel.  Very  little  agricul- 
ture is  carried  on.  A  few  vegetables  are  grown,  but  they 
are  poor  in  quality.  Most  of  the  food  must  be  brought 
in  from  other  countries. 

Sheep-raising  is  the  chief  industry,  and  in  spite  of  the 
stormy  conditions  the  sheep  thrive  remarkably.  Some 
cattle  are  raised ;  fish  are  abundant  in  the  waters  sur- 
rounding the  islands,  but  because  of  the  heavy  winds 
and  stormy  weather  very  little  fishing  is  done. 

These  islands 
have  long  served 
as  a  repair  sta- 
tion for  sailing 
vessels  that  have 
found  difficulty 
in  rounding  Cape 
Horn  or  in  pass- 
ing through  the 
Strait  of  Magel- 
lan. Now  that  the 
Panama  Canal  is 
open  for  traffic, 
fewer  vessels  will 
go  this  way. 


Courtesy  of  the  Pan  American  Union 

Fig.  308.   Cattle-raising  is  second  only  to  sheep- 
raising  in  Uruguay.   These  cattle  are  herded  in  a 
typical  corral,  which  is  very  roughly  but  strongly 
made  by  using  the  crooked  limbs  of  trees 


COLON  ARCHIPELAGO 

(GALAPAGOS  ISLANDS) 

A  group  of  ten  islands,  600  miles  west  of  Ecuador 
and  850  miles  southwest  of  Panama,  have  appeared  for 
years  on  almost  all  maps  as  the  Galapagos  Islands.  In 
1892  they  were  officially  renamed  the  Colon  Archipelago 
in  honor  of  Columbus.  These  islands  belong  to  Ecuador. 
The  Spanish  word  "galapagos"  means  turtles.  When  the 
islands  were  discovered,  there  were  no  people  living 
there,  but  there  were  many  giant  turtles,  some  large 
and  strong  enough  to  carry  a  man.  Pirates  are  supposed 
to  have  used  these  islands  as  a  meeting  place,  and  they 
may  have  buried  stolen  treasure  there. 

PROBLEMS  AND  GENERAL  REVIEW  QUESTIONS 

1.  In  what  part  of  South  America  did  Columbus  land  ? 
2.  Where  was  the  land  of  the  Incas?  3.  What  languages 
are  most  commonly  spoken  in  South  America  ?  4.  What  is 
the  commonest  form  of  government  in  South  America? 
5.  What  South  American  countries  are  colonies  of  European 
nations  ?   To  what  nations  do  they  belong  ? 


Fig.  309.  The  docks  at  Montevideo  are  always  busy,  for  Montevideo  is  the 
great  port  of  Uruguay  and  handles  three  fourths  of  the  exports  and  imports 
of  the  country.  From  what  countries  have  the  ships  in  the  picture  come  ? 
What  have  they  brought  to  Montevideo  ?   What  will  they  carry  away  ? 

6.  Where  is  the  greatest  coffee-producing  area?  7.  Where 
are  the  best  grazing  lands  ?  8.  What  countries  produce  large 
quantities  of  fruit  ?  9.  In  what  country  are  oranges  most 
abundant?  10.  What  is  the  largest  country?  11.  Where  is 
the  greatest  rubber-producing  area? 

12.  What  country  is  famous  for  its  tin?  13.  What  coun- 
try is  famous  for  its  nitrate?  14.  What  country  is  famous 
for  its  panama  hats  ?  15.  What  improvements  would  be  of 
the  greatest  help  to  South  America? 

16.  What  country  of  South  America  may  rival  the  United 
States?  17.  What  country  sends  us  wool?  18.  What  prod- 
ucts do  the  people  living  on  the  lowland  plains  raise  in  such 
abundance  that  they  can  export  them  ? 

19.  What  products  from  the  great  forests  of  South  America 
are  shipped  to  other  countries  ?  20.  What  do  the  people  get 
from  the  mountains  and  sell  to  other  people  ?  21.  What  prod- 
uct is  raised  on  the  slopes  of  the  Brazilian  Highlands  and 
shipped  from  Santos?  Where  is  it  sent?  See  map  on  page  145. 


(£)  £.  M.  Nerem 

Fig.  310.   This  is  one  of  the  plazas  in  Montevideo,  the  capital  of  Uruguay. 

Montevideo  is  the  only  large  city  in  the  republic.  Can  you  account  for  this  ? 

Locate  Montevideo  on  your  map.  How  should  you  travel  from  Montevideo 

to  Asuncion  ?  to  Sao  Paulo  ?  to  Santiago  ? 


156 


COMPARATIVE  MAP  STUDIES 


Average  annual  rainfall  in  South  America 


COMPARATIVE  MAP  STUDIES 

I.  Where  is  the  great  tropical  forest  of  South  America  ? 
How  much  rain  falls  there  each  year  ?  Is  it  a  good  place 
for  white  people  to  live  in  ?  Why  ?  2.  Where  is  the  rainfall 
more  than  is  favorable  to  agriculture?  What  winds  bring 
such  heavy  rains  ? 

S.  Where  is  the  rainfall  about  right  in  amount  and  seasonal 
distribution  for  agriculture  ?  Do  the  people  practice  agricul- 
ture in  these  parts  ?  4.  Where  are  the  extensive  grasslands 
in  South  America  ?    How  much  rain  do  they  receive  ? 

5.  To  which  coast  do  the  southeast  trades  come  ?  6.  To 
what  coast  do  the  northeast  trades  come  ?  7.  To  what  coast 
do  the  prevailing  westerly  winds  come  ?  8.  In  what  months 
does  the  rainfall  of  southern  Brazil  come  ?  9.  What  are  the 
summer  months  in  southern  Brazil  ?  10.  Where  are  the  tem- 
perate forests  in  South  America? 

II.  How  do  you  explain  the  very  dry  conditions  on  the  west 
coast  from  5  to  35  degrees  south  latitude?  12.  Why  should 
this  dry  belt  cross  the  mountains  at  about  35  degrees  south 
latitude  ?  Why  is  it  dry  farther  south  on  the  east  side  ?  This 
explains  why  central  and  southern  Chile  have  heavy  rainfall. 

13.  Why  should  it  be  very  dry  on  the  Bolivian  Plateau  ? 

14.  What  months  are.  included  in  the  rainy  season  in  Chile  ? 

15.  What  portion  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  has 
its  rainy  season  during  the  winter  months  ?  What  months  are 
these?  16.  What  semiarid  land  in  South  America  is  crossed 
by  rivers  that  may  be  used  for  irrigating  the  soils? 


Distribution  of  people  in  South  America 


17.  Why  should  there  be  so  heavy  a  rainfall  just  east 
of  the  Andes  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Amazon  River  ? 
18.  Where  is  the  rainfall  heaviest  in  Central  America  and 
Panama?    19.  What  winds  must  bring  that  rain? 

20.  Where  do  most  of  the  people  live,  —  near  the  coast  or 
inland?  in  mountains  or  in  lowlands?  near  or  far  from  rivers  ? 
Tell  why  they  choose  these  places  to  live  in.  21.  Why  do  so 
few  people  live  in  the  Amazon  Lowlands  away  from  the 
main  river?  22.  Why  do  so  few  people  live  in  western  and 
southern  Argentina  ? 

23.  Why  are  many  of  the  western  cities  in  the  high  plateaus? 

24.  What  parts  of  South  America  are  most  densely  populated  ? 

25.  What  geographic  advantages  attracted  people  to  these 
centers  ?  26.  Where  is  the  population  most  likely  to  increase  ? 
Why  ?  27.  How  do  the  people  make  a  living  who  are  in  areas 
of  less  than  10  inches  of  rainfall  a  year  ?  Give  examples 
from  South  America. 

28.  Which  are  the  young,  rugged  mountains  of  South  Amer- 
ica ?  29.  How  do  they  differ  in  general  appearance  from  the 
old,  worn-down  mountains?  30.  What  mountains  in  North 
America  do  the  Andes  resemble  ?  31.  Where  are  the  old, 
worn-down  mountains?  32.  What  mountain  areas  in  North 
America  do  the  Guiana  and  Brazilian  Highlands  resemble? 
33.  Name  the  great  lowland  areas.  34.  Where  is  the  widest 
part  of  the  belt  of  shallow  water  (continental  shelf)  around 
South  America?  35.  Are  the  Falkland  Islands  on  the  conti- 
nental shelf  ?  36.  Where  do  the  icebergs  come  from  that  float 
about  in  the  ocean  south  of  this  continent  ? 


©  Giim  uud  Company 


INTRODUCTION" 


The  ancient  castles  suggest  at  once  the  historic  inter- 
est in  almost  every  European  scene.  Europe  has  long 
been  occupied  by  civilized,  progressive  peoples,  and  its 
civilization  has  had  a  profound  influence  upon  almost  all 
the  nations  of  the  world.  The  choicest  of  the  world's 
music,  much  of  its  best  literature,  the  finest  works  of 
sculpture,  and  the  greatest  paintings  have  been  produced 
by  Europeans. 


People.  Europe  was  peopled  for  the  most  part  by 
members  of  the  white  race  who  are  supposed  to  have 
come  from  west  central  Asia.  Some  of  them  migrated 
into  the  eastern  Mediterranean  region  and  then  into 
southern  Europe.  From  these  people  the  Italians  and 
Greeks  have  descended. 

Other  groups  of  the  white  race  migrated  north  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  and  moved  westward  into  the  great  plains 


The  discovery  of  the  power  in  steam,  the  invention  of     of  central  Europe.    The  Celts,  Teutons,  and  Slavs  fol- 


the  printing  press,  the  discovery  of  the  X-rays  that  have 
made  it  possible  to  take  pictures  through  clothing,  wood, 
and  even  through  flesh,  the  invention  of  wireless  teleg- 
raphy, and  many  other  valuable  scientific  discoveries 
and  inventions  have  been  made  by  Europeans. 

The  explorers  and  settlers  who  first  came  to  the  new 
world  were  Europeans  (see  Appendix,  Plate  A),  and  now 
every  nation  in  Europe  is  represented  in  the  population 
of  the  United  States.  From  the  earliest  days  of  settle- 
ment along  our  Atlantic  coast  we  have  maintained  com- 
mercial relations  with  the  countries  of  Europe,  and  the 
heaviest  ocean  traffic  to-day  is  between  the  ports  of 
western  Europe  and  those  of  our  Atlantic  coast  states. 
See  Appendix,  Plate  B.  The  World  War  awakened  and 
renewed  our  interest  in  the  people  of  all  the  countries 
of  the  world,  but  especially  in  the  people  of  Europe. 
Here  new  countries  were  established,  and  in  most  of  these 
countries  a  republican  form  of  government  was  organized. 
The  future  development  of  the  nations  of  Europe  is  of 
very  great  interest  and  importance  to  us. 


lowed  this  northern  route.  From  these  races  came  the 
people  who  now  make  up  the  nations  of  central  and 
northwestern  Europe. 

The  Finns  and  Laplanders  are  related  to  the  yellow, 
or  Mongolian,  race,  which  populated  eastern  Asia.  The 
Turks  are  descended  from  Mongolian  invaders  who 
swept  through  western  Asia  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
and  later  pushed  into  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  They  now 
live  in  the  area  in  and  about  Constantinople.  The 
Magyars  of  Hungary  are  also  descendants  of  Mongolian 
invaders,  but  of  still  earlier  days. 

Growth  of  nations.  The  subdivision  of  Europe  into 
many  peninsulas  and  highlands  and  into  lowland  areas 
surrounded  by  mountains,  and  the  presence  of  islands 
near  the  continent,  have  led  to  the  growth  of  many 
distinct  nations.  No  other  continent  has  so  many 
separate  nations.  People  who  are  shut  off  by  themselves 
usually  have  their  own  language  and  customs  and  often 
wish  to  be  independent.  Mountain  peoples  everywhere 
in  the  world  are  great  lovers  of  freedom. 


157 


158 


NATURAL  REGIONS 


Natural  Regions 

Europe  may  first  be  divided  for  purposes  of  study  into 
five  large  natural  regions  :  (1)  the  Northwest  Highlands, 
(2)  the  Central  Plains,  (3)  the  Central  Highlands,  (4)  the 
Southern  Mountains  and  Plateaus,  and  (5)  the  Southern 
Lowlands.  See  map  on  page  161.  Each  of  these  regions 
may  be  subdivided  for  the  detailed  study  of  any  country. 


Fig.  311.  This  is  Ben  Nevis,  the  highest  mountain  in  Scotland.  The  Scotch 

word  "ben"  means  mountain  and  is  often  used  before  the  name  of  a  peak, 

just  as  the  word  "  mount "  is  used  in  English.   Locate  Ben  Nevis  on  your 

map.   To  what  natural  region  does  it  belong  ?  What  is  its  height  ? 

Northwest  Highlands.  This  is  a  coastal  region  where 
fishermen  live,  where  many  men  become  good  seamen, 
where  great  explorers  have  been  brought  up,  where  excel- 
lent harbors  have  helped  the  growth  of  cities,  where,  in 
places,  coal  and  iron  have  led  to  an  industrial  life,  and 
where  commerce  has  become  very  important.  It  is  a 
region  of  cool  temperate  climate,  which  makes  the  people 
energetic.  The  peninsula  of  Brittany  in  France,  most  of 
the  British  Isles,  and  most  of  the  Scandinavian  Penin- 
sula are  included  in  this  natural  region  (Figs.  311,  312). 

MAP  STUDIES 

Use  map  on  page  161.  1.  Find  the  name  "  Northwest  High- 
lands." 2.  Are  the  mountains  of  this  natural  region  young  and 
rugged  or  old  and  worn  down  ?  3.  Through  what  large  group 
of  islands  do  the  Northwest  Highlands  extend  ?  When  more 
of  the  continent  stood  above  the  sea,  this  highland  belt  was 
a  continuous  mountain  mass  extending  from  the  Upland  of 
Brittany  to  North  Cape. 

4.  What  is  the  general  elevation  of  the  highlands  in  Norway? 
In  the  mythology  of  the  Norse  people  this  cold  region,  in 
places  almost  inaccessible,  was  supposed  to  be  peopled  by 
the  frost  giants,  or  Jotunns,  and  the  name  "  Jotunnheim," 
which  means  home  of  the  giants,  is  still  used. 

Use  maps  on  page  216.  5.  What  winds  bring  rain  to  the 
Northwest  Highlands  ?  6.  How  much  rain  falls  in  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  highlands  ?  7.  In  what  part  of  this  natural 
region  is  the  population  densest  ?    Why  ? 


Central  Plains.  Turn  to  the  map  on  page  161  for  the 
location  and  extent  of  the  Central  Plains,  and  to  the  map 
opposite  page  216  for  the  surface  features  and  vegeta- 
tion. This  is  the  great  food-producing  area  of  Europe 
(Fig.  314).  It  includes  the  larger  lowlands  of  France,  the 
plain  of  southeastern  England,  almost  all  of  the  land  in 
the  low  countries  bordering  the  North  Sea,  all  of  northern 
Germany,  most  of  Poland,  and  most  of  Russia.  In  the 
densely  settled  parts  it  is  divided  into  small  farms  that 
are  cultivated  most  thoroughly.  Where  the  population  is 
sparse  there  are  forests  or  great  tracts  of  grazing  lands. 

The  Central  Plains  extend  so  far  from  north  to  south, 
and  so  far  inland,  that  there  are  great  differences  in 
climate  within  the  region,  and  therefore  great  differ- 
ences in  the  vegetation  and  in  the  occupations  of  the 
people.  In  the  tundra  region  of  the  Far  North  there  are 
mosses,  lichens,  low  bushes,  and  dwarf  trees;  some  of 
the  trees  are  only  a  few  inches  high.    The  ground  is 


Courtesy  of  Williams,  ttruwn,  and  Lurle 


Fig.  312.   The  old,  worn-down  mountains  along  the  coast  of  the  Scandina- 
vian Peninsula  have  sunk,  allowing  the  sea  waters  to  enter  the  valleys,  and 
making  steep-walled  fiords  like  the  one  in  this  view.    Notice  the  location 
of  the  little  village  on  the  narrow  strip  of  lowland  by  the  water 

frozen  except  for  a  few  months,  and  as  water  cannot 
sink  into  the  ground  this  land  is  marshy  during  the 
summer.  Toward  the  north  pole  vegetation  disappears. 
The  reindeer  moss  is  the  most  valuable  plant  in  the 
tundra;  it  makes  possible  the  life  of  the  reindeer,  the 
animal  which  provides  many  people  with  milk  for  food 
and  skins  for  clothing.  The  reindeer  is  also  used  as  a 
draft  animal  in  arctic  regions. 

South  of  the  tundra  there  is  an  extensive  evergreen 
forest.  The  timber  is  used  for  masts,  for  building,  and 
for  fuel.  Most  of  the  cutting  is  done  in  the  winter,  and 
in  the  spring  the  logs  are  floated  down  the  streams. 
From  the  best  logs  lumber  is  made ;  the  poorer  material 
is  used  for  matches  or  wood  pulp.  This  forest  extends 
westward  into  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula. 


NATURAL  REGIONS 


159 


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Fig.  313.  This  is  a  view  in  the  Central  Highlands  near  the  boundary  be- 
tween Czechoslovakia  and  Germany.  The  mountains  here  are  old  and  worn 
down.  The  little  towns  and  villages  are  located  in  the  open  valleys  between 
the  mountains,  where  there  is  enough  fertile  soil  for  agriculture.  What  are 
the  chief  natural  resources  of  this  region  ? 

In  the  grasslands  south  of  the  forests  there  are  large 
areas  used  for  raising  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley. 
Potatoes  are  grown  everywhere  except  in  the  veiy  cold- 
est or  driest  places.  The  sugar  beet  is  one  of  the  most 
important  plants  of  the  plains  of  central  Europe ;  peas, 
beans,  and  other  vegetables  are  raised  in  abundance. 

In  the  lowlands  of  southern  France  the  climate  be- 
comes mild  like  that  of  the  other  lowlands  in  the 
Mediterranean  region.  Grapes  are  extensively  cultivated 
here,  and  many  other  kinds  of  fruit  are  raised. 

In  the  drier  portions  of  southeastern  Europe,  where 
the  winters  are  severe  and  the  summers  hot,  stock- 
raising  is  the  chief  occupation.  Here  the  lands  are 
often  called  steppes,  which  means  lowland 
plains  without  trees.  The  people  of  the  dry- 
steppes  are  tent-dwellers  who  move  about 
with  their  herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep. 
Near  the  Caspian  Sea  there  is  a  semidesert 
where  very  few  plants  can  grow. 

MAP  STUDIES 

1.  Use  map  on  page  161.  On  what  bodies  of 
water  do  the  Central  Plains  border  ?  2.  What 
is  the  general  elevation  of  these  plains  ?  3.  What 
old,  worn-down  mountains  are  on  their  north- 
eastern margin  ? 

4.  What  young,  rugged  mountains  are  on  the 
southern  margin  of  these  plains  ?  5.  What  hills 
rise  above  these  plains  at  a  distance  of  about 
200  kilometers  northwest  of  Moscow?  6.  What 
highland  region,  with  old,  worn-down  mountains, 
is  south  of  the  western  part  of  the  Central  Plains? 


7.  Use  maps  on  page  216.  What  is  the  rainfall  on  the 
western  margin  of  the  Central  Plains  ?  in  the  central  part  ? 
in  the  eastern  part  ?  8.  Why  does  western  Europe  receive  more 
rain  than  eastern  Europe?  9.  In  what  part  of  the  Central 
Plains  of  Europe  is  the  population  densest  ?    Why  ? 

Central  Highlands.  This  part  of  Europe  contains  the 
great  iron  and  coal  mines  that  made  it  possible  for  cen- 
tral Europe  to  become  an  industrial  district  and  for 
Germany  and  Austria  to  continue  the  great  World  War 
from  191-4  to  1918.  It  is  a  region  having  large  and 
varied  mineral  resources,  water-power,  and  many  excel- 
lent forests,  and  is  therefore  a  region  of  very  great  im- 
portance to  the  future  industrial  life  of  the  nations  of 
Europe.  This  natural  region  extends  into  France,  Bel- 
gium, Luxemburg,  southern  Germany,  Austria,  and 
western  Czechoslovakia  (Fig.  313). 

MAP  STUDIES 

1.  Use  map  between  pages  181  and  184.  Into  what  countries 
do  the  Central  Highlands  extend  ?  Are  the  mountains  young 
and  rugged  or  old  and  worn  down  ?  Make  a  list  of  the  chief 
mountain  ranges  in  this  natural  region.  What  mountains  in 
the  United  States  do  you  think  they  resemble  in  general 
appearance  ?    See  also  map  opposite  page  216. 

2.  What  plateaus  are  included  in  these  highlands  ?  3.  Be- 
tween what  mountains  is  the  lowland  plain  of  the  middle 
portion  of  the  Rhine  River?  4.  Make  a  list  of  the  chief 
mineral  resources  found  within  this  natural  region. 

5.  Use  maps  on  page  216.  What  is  the  rainfall  in  this 
region  ?    6.  Where  is  the  population  densest  in  this  region  ? 

Home  work.  Use  figures  on  page  268.  List  the  January  and 
July  temperatures  for  Belgium,  Poland,  northern  Russia,  east 
central  Russia,  and  Ukraine.  Where  is  the  change  in  tempera- 
ture from  January  to  July  the  least?  Where  is  it  greatest?  Ex- 
plain. Study,  in  this  connection,  the  ocean-current  map  on  page  275. 


Courtesy  of  the  International  flarrester  Company 

Fig.  314.  The  Central  Plains  of  Russia  produce  great  quantities  of  wheat  and  other  grains. 
This  view  shows  an  American  harvesting  machine  at  work  cutting  wheat  in  this  region. 
Although  large  numbers  of  the  Russian  people  still  cultivate  the  soil  entirely  by  hand, 
modern  farm  machinery  is  gradually  being  introduced,  making  possible  a  great  increase 
in  the  amount  of  food  that  can  be  raised 


160 


MAP  STUDIES 


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COAST  LINE 


Southern  lowlands.  In  the  valley  of  the  Danube  is 
the  Plain  of  Hungary.  It  is  a  broad,  river-uiade  land 
formed  of  the  fine  soil  materials  washed  from  the  sur- 
rounding mountains.  This  is  one  of  the  best  farming 
and  grazing  regions  in  the  world  (Fig.  316).  Vast  sup- 
plies of  food  are  produced  on  this  plain. 

South  of  the  Alps  and  north  of  the  Apennines  in  the 
valley  of  the  Po  there  is  another  river-made  land.  Here  the 
soils  washed  from  the  neighboring  mountains  have  filled 
in  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.  This  is  a  well-watered 
land  with  rich  soils.  Most  of  it  is  under  cultivation, 
and  it  supports  a 
large  population. 

The  narrow  low- 
lands on  the  coast 
of  Portugal,  Spain, 
Italy,  and  the  coun- 
tries in  the  Balkan 
Peninsula  are  or- 
chard lands,  where 
large  supplies  of 
subtropical  fruits, 
such  as  oranges, 
lemons,  olives,  and 
figs,  are  raised. 

MAP  STUDIES 


E*i  ln.-in'  New*  Ajrencj,  Itoeliamrititu 

Fig.  316.  The  great  plain  of  the  Danube  and  its  tributaries  is  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  regions 

in  Europe.   This  view  of  the  river  was  taken  on  the  frontier  between  Jugoslavia  and  Hungary.   In 

the  distance  the  level  plain  extends  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see.   On  the  opposite  bank  is  a  herd  of 

the  cattle  which  are  raised  extensively  in  this  region 


Use  map  between 
pages  207  and  210. 
1.  What  mountains 
surround  the  Plain 
of  Hungary  ?  2.  Into  what  countries  does  this  plain  extend  ? 
3.  What  river  drains  the  lowland  of  northern  Italy  ?  4.  Where 
do  narrow  coastal  lowlands  border  the  Mediterranean  Sea  ? 

Coast  Line 
The  North  and  Baltic  seas  and  the  Mediterranean  and 


commercial   nations.     The  peoples  of  western  Europe 
have  led  the  world  in  seafaring  occupations. 

Home  work.  1.  On  an  outline  map  of  Europe  shade  or  color 
the  area  that  is  more  than  rive  hundred  miles  from  an  ocean  or 
an  arm  of  an  ocean.  2.  Find  out  what  parts  of  the  world  are  now 
controlled  by  Europeans  or  descendants  of  Europeans.  Shade  or 
color  those  parts  on  an  outline  map  of  the  world. 

Problems  and  review  questions.    1.  Why  should  the  people  in 

America  be  especially  interested  in  the  people  of  Europe  ?   Give  at 

least  five  good  reasons.   2.  What  nations  of  Europe  are  represented 

in  the  population  of  your  school  district  ?    of  your  city  or  town  ? 

3.  How  does  the  size  of  Europe  compare  with  that  of  Canada  ? 

of  Asia  ?  4.  How  far 
is  Europe  separated 
from  Africa  at  Gibral- 
tar ?  Use  scale  on  map 
between  pages  207  and 
210.  5.  Why  do  irreg- 
ular coast  lines  lead 
men  to  become  seamen 
and  explorers  ? 

6.  To  what  race  do 
most  of  the  people 
of  Europe  belong  ? 
7.  What  people  in 
Europe  belong  to  the 
Mongolian,  or  yellow, 
race  ?  8.  Why  did  so 
many  distinct  nations 
develop  in  this  conti- 
nent? Give  examples. 
9.  Give  a  brief  de- 
scription of  the  five 
large  natural  regions 
of  Europe. 


Influence  op  the  Ice-Sheets 

In  studying  North  America  we  learned  of  great  ice- 
sheets  that  formed  in  Canada.  Europe  also  had  great 
ice-sheets  during  the  same  glacial  period  (Fig.  317 ). 
They  formed  on  the   highlands  of   the   Scandinavian 


Black  seas  extend  far  into  the  continent  of  Europe.     Peninsula  and  spread  in  all  directions,  advancing  east- 


These  great  irregularities  of  the  coast  line,  as  well  as 
the  smaller  irregularities,  are  of  very  great  importance 
to  the  life  of  the  people. 

No  part  of  Europe  except  central  and  eastern  Russia 
is  very  far  from  the  coast.  The  continent  is  landlocked 
on  one  side,  and  still  its  coast  line  of  about  50,000  miles 
is  longer  than  the  coast  lines  of  South  America  and 
Africa  combined,  thcYigh  South  America  is  nearly  twice 
and  Africa'  three  times  ;as  large  as  Europe.  Europe  is 
fortunatain -haviifg  many  excellent  harbors. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  lands  bordering  the  seas  natu- 
rally became  skillful  fishermen  and  sailors.  They  first 
followed  the  sea  as  traders  and  explorers ;  later  they 
made  good  colonists,  and  in  time  they  developed  great 


ward  into  central  Russia,  southward  across  the  Baltic 
Lowland  and  the  plains  of  Germany  to  the  margin  of 
the  Central  Highlands,  and  southwest  ward  until  they 
invaded  the  British  Isles. 

In  all  the  high  mountains  there  were  glaciers,  and 
those  that  remain  to-day  are  but  remnants  of  much 
longer  glaciers  of  the  great  ice  age. 

Over  most  of  the  land  where  the  ice  was  there  is  a 
covering  of  glacial  soils.  The  deposits  left  by  the  ice  con- 
tain bowlders  and  look  much  like  the  glacial  deposits  in 
North  America. 

Thousands  of  small  lakes  in  northwestern  Europe  and 
in  the  high  mountains  of  southern  Europe  are  in  valleys 
blocked  with  glacial  deposits. 


-    ■  • . 


CLIMATE  AND  NATURAL  RESOURCES 


163 


Climate 

The  surface  waters  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean  are  warmed  by  the  Gulf  Stream  Drift 
(see  map,  p.  275),  and  the  winds  that  blow  over  those 
waters  help  to  warm  the  air  over  the  lands  of  western 
Europe  during  the  winter  season.  Except  in  the  Far 
North  the  countries  of  western  Europe  do  not  have  long 
periods  of  frosts ;  that  is,  there  are  no  very  long  periods 
during  which  the  temperature  falls  below  the  freezing 
point  of  water.   This  is  a  great  advantage  to  agriculture. 

In  eastern  Germany  and 
in  Poland  there  are  over 
two  months  of  frosts,  and 
in  eastern  Russia  there  are 
over  four  months  of  frosts 
each  year.  In  the  bleak 
tundra  region  bordering  the 
Arctic  Ocean  there  are  frosts 
for  more  than  six  months, 
and  the  temperature  re- 
mains continuously  below 
the  freezing  point  for  a  great 
part  of  that  time. 

In  summer  eastern  Europe 
has  a  period  of  between 
two  and  four  months  when 
the  temperature  each  day 
rises  to  over  70°  F.,  while  in 
western  Europe  the  winds 
that  come  from  the  west 
and  have  passed  over  the 


In  general  the  mountain  areas  receive  more  rain  than 
the  lowlands.  Far  to  the  north  the  rainfall  decreases,  as 
it  does  in  all  countries  in  high  latitudes,  because  the  air 
is  too  cold  to  carry  much  moisture. 

Europe  may  therefore  be  divided  into  three  climatic 
regions :  (1)  the  west,  with  only  slight  changes  in  tem- 
perature and  with  rain  during  all  seasons  of  the  year; 
(2)  the  east,  where  the  changes  in  temperature  from 
summer  to  winter  are  great  and  rain  comes  chiefly  in 
the  summer ;  and  (3)  the  Mediterranean  region,  with  dry, 

hot  summers  and  mild  and 
somewhat  rainy  winters. 

Natural  Resources 

Europe  is  fortunate  in  its 
mineral  resources,  in  the  ex- 
tent and  quality  of  its  forests 
(see  map  opposite  page  216), 
and  in  the  rich  soils  of  the 
lowlands  suitable  for  agricul- 
ture. The  waterways,  the 
water-power,  the  harbors, 
and  the  fish  of  the  shallow 
seas  are  very  valuable. 

The  beautiful  scenery  and 
the  places  of  historic  and 
artistic  interest  are  of  great 
educational  value,  and  they 
bring  thousands  of  tourists 
to  the  different  European 
countries  each  year. 


Fig.  317.  This  map  shows  the  extent  to  which  the  continental  ice-sheets 
spread  over  Europe.  From  what  center  did  they  come?  Through  what 
countries  does  the  line  of  the  southern  limit  of  glaciation  pass  ?  What 
European  countries  have  never  been  covered  by  an  ice-sheet  ?  What  moun- 
tains of  Europe  still  contain  glaciers  ? 


Atlantic  Ocean  tend  to  prevent  such  a  long  warm  period.         In  each  of  the  countries  of  Europe  the  occupations 
The  large  seas  that  extend  far  into  the  continent  help     and  the  prosperity  of  the  people  have  been  determined 

to  keep  the  temperatures  of  western  and  southern  Europe     largely  by  the  climate  and   natural  resources  of   the 

warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer  than  they  would     regions  in  which  they  live. 

otherwise  be.    Changes  in  temperature  are  always  less 

marked  in  lands  surrounded,  or  nearly  surrounded,  by 

ocean  waters. 

Home  work.    Find  out  in  how  many  months  there  are  frosts 

in  your  home  region.    What  part  of  Europe  is  similar  to  your 

home  region  in  this  respect  ? 


In  the  Mediterranean  lands,  except  in  the  high  moun- 
tains, the  winters  are  without  long  periods  of  frosts,  and 
for  over  two  months  of  the  year  the  daily  temperature 
averages  more  than  70°  F.  In  the  extreme  south  of 
Spain  and  Italy  there  are  over  four  months  when  the 
average  daily  temperature  is  70°  F.  or  more. 

The  winds  from  the  Atlantic  bring  rain  to  the  western 
lands  each  month  of  the  year.  As  they  pass  on  eastward 
they  have  less  and  less  moisture  to  give  up,  so  the  rain- 
fall decreases  as  we  go  from  west  to  east  across  the 
continent  of  Europe.    See  map  on  page  216. 


Problems  and  review  questions.  I.  What  are  the  chief  occupa- 
tions of  the  people  who  live  in  the  Northwest  Highlands  of 
Europe  ?  2.  How  do  the  mountains  of  northwestern  Europe  differ 
from  those  of  southern  Europe  ? 

3.  How  may  the  hills  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Brittany  be 
explained  ?  4.  Where  did  the  great  continental  ice-sheet  of  Europe 
form  ?  5.  How  did  the  ice  change  the  surface  of  the  country 
that  it  invaded  ? 

6.  What  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people  in  the  different 
parts  of  the  Central  Plains,  — (a)  in  the  tundra  district  ?  (b)  in  the 
great  forests  ?  (c)  in  the  grassland  areas  ?  (d)  in  the  dry  steppe 
region  ?  7.  What  part  of  Europe  has  the  shortest  period  of  frosts  ? 
Why  ?  8.  How  do  the  inland  seas  affect  the  temperatures  of  the 
neighboring  lands  of  Europe  ? 

9.  In  what  natural  regions  of  Europe  are  there  large  supplies 
of  coal  and  iron  that  have  led  to  the  growth  of  industries  ?  10.  Why 
do  great  numbers  of  tourists  visit  Switzerland?  11.  How  does 
the  life  in  the  high  mountains  differ  from  that  on  the  plains? 
12.  Where  are  the  chief  lowland  plains  of  southern  Europe  ? 


164 


BRITISH  ISLES 


Courtesj  ot  Joseph  W.  Worth*  q 


Fig.  318.  This  is  the  home  of  George  Washington's 

ancestors  in  England.  The  quaint  old  house  was 

built  several  hundred  years  ago  and  stands  in  the 

midst  of  a  fertile  farming  country 


Fig.  319.   In  England  there  are  many  beautiful  Fig.  320.  Many  of  the  farmers  of  the  lowland  of 

homes  like  this,  which  are  often  called  manor  England  live  in  low,  thatch-roofed  cottages  like 

houses.   Such  a  house  is  usually  the  home  of  the  this.  Study  the  map  on  page  171  and  name  some 
owner  of  the  estate,  or  manor  of  the  products  which  they  raise 


BRITISH  ISLES 


mouths,  like  those  of  the  Thames  and  Mersey,  are  wide 
and  bordered  by  lowlands.  They  are  called  bays.  In  the 
The  British  have  become  a  great  industrial  and  com-  north,  where  the  river  mouths  are  narrow  and  bordered 
mercial  people.  In  the  early  days  of  active  geographic  by  hills,  or  mountains,  they  are  called  firths.  The  bays 
exploration  their  mariners  were  among  the  most  daring  and  firths  allow  vessels  to  go  far  inland  with  raw 
and  adventurous.  They  visited  almost  all  the  lands  of  material,  and  have  therefore  become  very  valuable  in 
the  earth,  and  to-day  the   British  Commonwealth  of     the  industrial  and  commercial  growth  of  Great  Britain. 


Nations  is  the  largest  and  most  widespread  in  the  world. 

Physical  features.  The  British  Isles  consist  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  and  nearly  5000  smaller  islands  near 
by.  Great  Britain  includes  the  Kingdom  of  England, 
the  Kingdom  of  Scotland,  and  the  Principality  of  Wales. 
Ireland  includes  the  Irish  Free  State  in  the  central  and 
southern  parts  of  the  island,  and  the  Government  of 
Northern  Ireland  in  the  northern  part. 

The  shallow  sea  around  the  British  Isles  is  nowhere 
over  600  feet  deep.  If  the  sea  bottom  should  rise 
300  feet,  the  British  Isles  would  be  connected  with 
Europe.  Formerly  they  were  a  part  of  the  mainland, 
but  the  western  portion  of 
Europe  sank,  and  the  sea, 
advancing  over  the  lower 
portions  of  the  land,  sepa- 
rated the  British  Isles  from 
the  rest  of  the  continent. 
There  is  now  a  plan  to  con- 
nect England  with  France 
by  a  tunnel  under  the  Strait 
of  Dover.  At  the  narrowest 
place  this  strait  is  about 
20  miles  wide. 

Coast.  The  shore  lines  of 
the  British  Isles  are  very 
irregular,  owing  to  the  sink- 
ing of  the  land  (Fig.  321). 
The  mouths  of  the  rivers  are 
drowned.  Some  of  the  river 


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Pdf%^ 

Fig.  321.  This  view  on.  the  coast  of  southwestern  England  shows  the 
irregularity  of  the  coast  line.  How  do  you  explain  this  irregularity  ?  Of 
what  advantage  is  it  to  the  nation  ?  Notice  the  level  land  at  the  head 
of  the  little  cove  in  the  foreground,  and  on  the  upland.  For  what  purposes 
may  these  level  stretches  of  land  be  used  ? 


Some  of  the  drowned  river  mouths  have  been  bridged, 
and  in  large  cities  like  London  tunnels  have  been  made 
under  the  rivers. 

Highlands.  Most  of  the  British  Isles  are  a  part  of 
the  Northwest  Highlands.  See  map  on  page  161.  In 
northern  Scotland  there  are  low,  picturesque  mountains 
and  many  beautiful  lakes  (Figs.  322,  323).  In  southern 
Scotland,  in  Wales,  in  southwestern  England,  and  in 
Ireland  the  upland  hilly  districts  are  all  that  is  left 
of  an  old  mountain  region. 

Lowlands.  The  lowland  of  England,  which  extends 
from  Birmingham  to  Liverpool,  is  a  busy  industrial  dis- 
trict and  the  most  produc- 
tive part  of  the  country.  In 
central  Ireland  the  lowland 
area,  which  covers  about  a 
third  of  the  whole  island, 
is  an  agricultural  land.  The 
lowland  extending  across 
Scotland  is  located  in  a  belt 
where  the  land  dropped 
down,  forming  a  deep  valley. 
This  is  an  industrial  district, 
but  there  are  many  culti- 
vated fields  here.  The  south- 
eastern lowland  plain  of 
England  is  a  part  of  the 
Central  Plains  of  Europe. 
It  is  a  grazing  and  agricul- 
tural region. 


BRITISH  ISLES 


165 


Influence  of  the  ice-sheet.  The  portion  of  the  European 
ice-sheet  (Fig.  317)  which  moved  southwestward  from 
Scandinavia  crossed  the  area  where 
the  North  Sea  now  is  and  invaded  the 
British  Isles.  In  time  the  ice  covered 
almost  all  of  these  islands.  When 
later  the  climate  became  warmer,  the 
great  ice-sheet  melted  away,  but  the 
deposits  of  bowlders,  the  many  lakes, 
and  the  glacial  markings  on  the  rocks 
remain  as  proofs  that  the  ice  was 
once  there. 

Climate.  There  is  some  variation 
in  temperature  in  the  various  parts 
of  the  British  Isles  because  of  the 
differences  in  latitude  and  in  eleva- 
tion ;  that  is,  in  general  it  is  colder 
in  the  north  and  on  the  small  islands 
north  of  Scotland  than  it  is  in  the 
south  of  England  and  Ireland,  and 
colder  in  the  highlands  than  in  the 
lowlands.  The  presence  of  the  sea, 
however,  prevents  any  great  extremes  of  temperature. 

No  part  of  this  land  at  sea  level  has  a  temperature  as 
low  as  32  degrees  F.  even  during  January,  which  is  the 


Fig.  322.   This  is  a  view  of  Loch  Lomond,  one  of 
the  beautiful  lakes  in  the  Scottish  Highlands.  To 
what  type  of  mountains  do  these  highlands  be- 
long ?  About  how  high  are  they  ? 


Natural  resources.    The  irregular  coast   line  of   the 
British  Isles  affords  many  excellent  harbors.  The  shallow 
waters  about  the  coast  abound  in  fish, 
and   the  British  fisheries   are  now 
among  the  richest  in  the  world. 

In  the  British  Isles  there  are  many 
rivers  which  have  been  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  industrial  growth  of 
the  islands.  Large  ocean  vessels  can 
go  fifty  miles  up  the  Thames  to 
London.  The  Clyde  is  also  navigable, 
and  ocean  vessels  pass  upstream  as 
far  as  Glasgow  (Fig.  324).  There  are 
many  smaller  streams  throughout  the 
British  Isles  which,  because  the  rain- 
fall is  heavy  and  much  of  the  country 
is  hilly,  furnish  good  water-power. 

In  the  ground  men  have  found 
coal,  iron,  lead,  copper,  and  tin.  Coal 
is  the  most  important  mineral  prod- 
uct ;  and  because  of  the  nearness  of 
the  coal  to  the  ports,  Great  Britain 
exports  more  coal  than  any  other  country.  The  tin  has 
been  largely  worked  out.  The  finding  of  iron  and  coal 
close  together  (see  map,  p.  171)  has  made  possible  the 
development  of  manufacturing  in  England,  southern 
Wales,  and  southern  Scotland.  Such  big  industries  as 
the  shipbuilding  of  the  Clyde  have  developed  because  of 
the  presence  of  coal  and  iron  in  the  same  locality. 

Excellent  building  stones  have  been  found,  including 
marble  and  slate.  These  building  stones  are  next  in 
importance  to  coal  and  iron.  In  southeastern  England 
there  is  a  formation  of  chalk  which  is  used  in  making 
cement.  There  are  also  excellent  deposits  of  clay  in 
England,  which  have  led  to  the  manufacture  of  pottery. 


Fig.  323.  A  broader  view  of  Loch  Lomond  shows  how  beautiful  the  scenery  is 
in  the  Scottish  Highlands.  The  lakes  are  surrounded  by  low,  wooded  moun- 
tains and  dotted  with  islands  of  different  shapes  and  sizes.  On  account 
of  its  beauty  this  region  is  visited  every  year  by  large  numbers  of  tourists 

coldest  month  of  the  year.  The  warmest  part  is  around 
London,  and  the  temperature  there  during  July  is  about 
6i  degrees  F.  The  seas  about  the  British  Isles  never  freeze, 
and  the  rivers  seldom  freeze.  When  snow  comes,  it  remains 
but  a  few  days,  except  on  the  higher  lands  in  the  north. 
The  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  southwest.  They 
bring  an  abundance  of  moisture,  and  fogs  and  mists  are 
very  common.  The  rainfall  is  heaviest  on  the  western 
slopes  of  the  higher  lands.    See  map  on  page  216. 


Fig.  324.  The  Firth  of  Clyde,  near  Glasgow,  is  lined  with  wharves  where  at 
any  time  great  ocean-going  vessels  may  be  seen  loading  and  unloading  their 
cargoes  and  taking  on  coal  and  supplies.  Locate  Glasgow  and  the  Firth  of 
Clyde  on  your  map.  Why  has  Glasgow  become  the  leading  port  of  Scotland  ? 


166 


BRITISH  ISLES 


^ 

i 

* 

1 

_.., 

[J|ofl 

Kffliifif 

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ESB^--- 

spcr- 

.'    i 

Fig.  325.    The  men  in  this  picture  are  Scotch 

fishermen  whose  home  is  on  the  northern  shore 

of  the  Firth  of  Forth.    The  old  man  is  mending 

one  of  their  wicker  fish-baskets 


Fig.  326.   These  fishing  boats  are  being  towed  out 

to  the  fishing  banks  from  one  of  the  Scottish  ports 

on  the  North  Sea.   What  different  kinds  of  fish 

will  be  found  in  their  catch  ? 


Fig.  327.  This  is  the  fish  market  on  the  wharf  at 
Aberdeen,  where  the  fishermen  bring  their  catch 
to  be  sold.    Why  has  Aberdeen  become  an  impor- 
tant center  for  the  fish  business  ? 


Occupations.  The  lowlands  invited  the  early  inhabitants  and  other  raw  materials  began  to  be  imported.  More 
of  these  islands  to  undertake  farming.  In  many  places  the  ships  were  built  and  more  and  more  of  the  British  people 
land  is  still  under  cultivation.  At 
the  present  time  more  and  more 
of  the  agricultural  land  is  being 
used  for  manufacturing  plants. 

Fishing  was  also  one  of  the 
earliest  occupations  and  has  con- 
tinued to  grow  in  importance  as 
the  population  has  increased. 
Large  quantities  of  cod,  herring, 
mackerel,  and  sole  are  brought 
in  by  the  fishermen  (Figs.  325, 
326,  327). 

From  the  earliest  days  the 
highlands  and  uplands  have  been 
used  for  the  grazing  of  cattle 
and  sheep,  but  for  a  time  the 
people  sent  the  wool  from  their 
flocks  over  to  Flanders,  and  the  busy  looms  of  Bruges  mills,  but  now  coal  is  brought  from  the  neighboring  coal 
and   Ghent   manufactured    most  of  the  English  wool,     fields.  Manchester,  connected  by  canal  with  the  sea,  is  also 


Fig.  328.    The  Manchester  Ship  Canal  connects  the  city  of 

Manchester  with  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey  River.   It  is  deep 

enough  to  allow  large  ocean  vessels  to4  reach  the  city,  making 

Manchester  an  important  port 


entered  commercial  life.  In  time 
the  manufacturing  industries 
and  commerce  became  the  chief 
occupations  in  the  British  Isles. 
Home  work.  On  an  outline  map  of 
the  world,  name  and  color  the  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  British  Common- 
wealth. See  pp.  168  and  169.  This  will 
bring  out  clearly  the  interest  which 
the  British  people  naturally  have  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  British  commerce 
has  developed  largely  with  British 
dominions.    See  Appendix,  Plate  B. 

Cities.  At  the  eastern  base 
of  the  Pennine  Mountains  are 
Leeds  and  Bradford,  where  woolen 
goods  are  manufactured.  Water- 
power  was  first  used  to  run  the 


During  the  time  of  religious 
persecutions  in  northern  Europe 
many  skillful  weavers  sought 
safety  across  the  Channel,  and 
weaving  soon  became  a  very 
common  occupation  in  England. 
Large  quantities  of  wool  are  now 
produced  in  the  British  Isles  and 
manufactured  in  the  home  mills. 
England  supplies  many  other 
countries  with  a  high  grade  of 
woolen  cloth. 

With  the  great  increase  in 
population,  and  with  the  dis- 
covery of  coal  and  iron,  the 
manufacturing  plants  increased 
in  number  and  size,  and  cotton 


a  manufacturing  center  (Fig.  328). 
Cotton  brought  here  in  large 
quantities  from  our  Southern 
states  and  from  other  parts  of 
the  world  is  manufactured  into 
cloth.  The  dampness  of  the  air 
on  the  western  side  of  the 
Pennine  Range  is  favorable  to 
this  industry,  for  the  cotton  fiber 
can  be  made  into  cloth  more 
easily  if  it  is  a  little  moist  than 
if  it  is  dry. 

Liverpool,  the  coast  city  nearest 
to  this  remarkable  manufactur- 

Fig.  329.    The  landing  stages  at  Liverpool  are  always  busy      }ng  district,  is  One  of  the  greatest 
and  are  often  crowded  with  people.   Liverpool  is  the  leading  ,,  u         j    j 

.*   *  ^     ..  t>  •<.  •    c    .l  *    a      ...  A      •       „,.,.  t  ports  in  the  world  and  does  a 

port  of  Great  Britain  for  the  trade  with  America.   What  are      p"*1-3 

its  chief  exports  and  imports?  tremendous  business  (Fig.  329). 


BRITISH  ISLES 


167 


Sheffield  is  famous  for  its  iron-and-steel  industry.  Coal 
is  near  at  hand,  and  when  the  industry  first  started  there 
was  a  supply  of  iron.  This  is  now  largely  exhausted,  but 
iron  is  imported  from  other  countries.  Excellent  grind- 
stones are  made  near  Sheffield ;  they  are  very  important 
in  the  manufacture  of  cutlery.  Birmingham,  centrally 
located  in  England,  is  in  another  manufacturing  dis- 
trict. It  has  an  abundance  of  coal,  and  its  iron-and-steel 
industries  occupy  the  time  of  many  thousands  of  people. 


advantage,  for  the  commerce  with  the  countries  of  westr 
ern  Europe  naturally  comes  to  this  port.  The  river  is 
lined  for  miles  with  docks,  and  yet  there  are  not  places 
enough  for  the  vessels  that  are  in  this  port  at  one  time. 
It  is  commonly  reported  that  London  is  the  largest  city 
in  the  world,  but  that  is  not  true  unless  the  population 
of  a  very  large  suburban  district  is  taken  into  consider- 
ation. The  population  of  London  proper  is  now  a  little 
smaller  than  that  of  New  York  City.    See  Appendix,. 


Fig.  330.  This  is  an  aeroplane  drawing  of  London  and  its  surroundings. 
The  numbers  show  the  location  of  the  following  places  of  interest: 
1,  Regent's  Park ;  2,  Kensington  Gardens ;  3,  Hyde  Park;  4,  Buckingham 
Palace ;   5,  British  Museum ;   6,  National  Gallery ;   7,  Trafalgar  Square ; 

London,  the  seat  of  the  British  government,  is  located 
at  the  head  of  the  estuary  of  the  Thames.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  cities  in  the  world  (Figs.  330,  331,  333). 
Its  location  was  first  determined  by  some  high  ground 
on  the  banks  of  the  Thames,  where  a  bridge  could  be 
built  across  the  river.  Modern  London  has  grown  up 
around  this  bridge.  The  city  is  far  inland  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  plains.  Easy  means  of  transportation  has 
been  one  of  the  great  natural  advantages  of  its  location, 
and  it  has  become  a  railroad  and  manufacturing  center. 
Its  position  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  islands  is  a  natural 


©  Ginn  and  Company 

8,  Charing  Cross;  9,  Westminster  Abbey;  10,  Houses  of  Parliament; 
11,  St.  Paul's  Cathedral;  12,  London  Bridge;  13,  Tower  of  London; 
14,  Victoria  Park.  At  Harrow-on-the-Hill  is  a  famous  school  for  boys  which 
was  founded  fifty  years  before  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth 

Picture  study.  Fig.  330  shows  the  city  of  London  and  its  sur- 
roundings. Study  this  figure  carefully  and  answer  the  following 
questions :  1.  On  what  river  is  London  situated  ?  2.  In  what 
direction  is  the  river  flowing  ?  3.  Describe  the  country  around 
London.  4.  Notice  the  large  number  of  railroads.  Why  is  London 
such  an  important  railroad  center  ?  5.  Find  London  Bridge.  This 
is  near  the  spot  where  the  first  settlement  of  London  was  made. 
6.  Find  the  Greenwich  Observatory.  What  meridian  of  longitude 
passes  through  Greenwich  ?  See  map  on  page  171.  The  Green- 
wich Observatory  was  built  in  1675,  and  all  English-speaking 
people  measure  longitude  by  the  number  of  degrees  east  or  west 
of  it.  7.  Find  the  location  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  This  is 
where  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons  meet. 


168 


BRITISH  ISLES 


Fig.  331.  This  is  the  Tower  Bridge  in  London,  so  named  because  it  spans 
the  Thames  near  the  famous  old  Tower  of  London.  Notice  the  way  in 
which  the  parts  of  the  bridge  are  raised  to  allow  the  boats  to  pass  through. 
Name  some  of  the  raw  materials  which  are  brought  to  London  by  water. 
From  what  places  do  they  come  ? 

Aberdeen,  in  Scotland,  is  a  university  town.  It  is  also 
an  important  fishing  port  (Fig.  327)  and  the  center  of  a 
manufacturing  district.  There  are  important  granite 
quarries  close  by. 

Edinburgh,  the  capital  of  Scotland,  is  beautifully  situ- 
ated about  a  picturesque  crag  on  the  margin  of  the 
Scottish  lowlands,  and  its  busy  seaport,  Leith,  connects 
this  region  with  the  North  Sea  and  the  European  ports 
(Fig.  332).  It  is  best  known  for  its  advanced  methods 
in  banking  and  insurance  and  for  its  excellent  medical 
school.  A  trip  from  Edinburgh  to  Glasgow  takes  one 
through  the  lake  region  of  Scotland.  Glasgow  is  located  on 

the  Clyde  River, 
in  the  lowlands 
of  Scotland,  near 
rich  coal  and  iron 
fields.  It  is  in  the 
midst  of  one  of 
the  greatest  ship- 
building regions 
in  the  world.  In 
commercial  impor- 
tance Glasgow  is 
first  in  Scotland 
and  ranks  second 
only  to  London. 
Since  the  Clyde 
has  been  deep- 
ened Glasgow  has 
become  a  great 
modern  port,  and 

Fig.  333.  This  beautiful  church  is  Westminster  j-^  [s   also  an  im- 
Abbey  in  London.   It  was  built  more  than  seven  ,       ,  +      f 

hundred  years  ago  and  contains  many  monuments  Portant  center  tor 

to  famous  men.  Find  its  location  in  Fig.  330  railroad  traffic. 


Fig.  332.  Princes  Street  is  the  principal  thoroughfare  in  Edinburgh.  In 
the  foreground  of  this  view  are  the  beautiful  public  gardens.  Beyond  the 
gardens  is  the  tall  monument  erected  in  honor  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  the  great 
Scottish  writer.  On  the  hill  at  the  left  is  the  castle  which  used  to  be  the 
home  of  the  Scottish  kings 

Belfast,  the  capital  of  Northern  Ireland,  has  a  large 
ship-building  business.  There  is  an  abundance  of  labor 
and  excellent  facilities  for  launching  vessels  at  this  port 
(Fig.  336).  Iron,  steel,  and  coal  are  easily  brought  by 
water  from  Great  Britain.  Belfast  is  also  the  center  for 
the  manufacture  of  the  wonderful  Irish  linens.  Flax 
thread  is  usually  kept  moist 
during  the  process  of  spin- 
ning and  weaving,  and  the 
climate  of  Belfast  is  most 
favorable  to  this  industry 
(Fig.  335).  Much  of  the  flax 
used  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  linen  is  grown  in  north- 
ern Ireland,  but  large  quan- 
tities are  imported  from 
Belgium,  Russia,  and  the 
Baltic  countries. 

Dublin,  the  capital  of  the 
Irish  Free  State,  is  an  im- 
portant seaport.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  east  margin  of 
the  central  plain  of  Ireland, 

and  the  produce  of  this  region  is  brought  by  way  of 
canals  to  Dublin  for  shipping.  This  city  has  also  be- 
come a  center  for  the  manufacture  of  silk  and  wool. 
Cork,  an  important  city  on  the  south  shore  of  Ireland, 
is  the  port  from  which  are  shipped  the  cattle  and  dairy 
products  of  southern  Ireland. 

The  British  Commonwealth  includes  (in  Europe)  Great 
Britain,  Ireland,  Gibraltar,  and  Malta  (Fig.  337) ;  (in 
Asia)  India,  Cyprus,  Aden,  Ceylon,  Straits  Settle- 
ments, Federated  Malay  States,  Borneo,  Hongkong, 
and   a   few   other    small    areas ;    (southeast    of    Asia) 


[)  Keystone  View  Co. 

Fig.  334.  Blarney  Castle  is  a  pictur- 
esque ruin  near  Cork  in  Ireland ;  it  is 
visited  by  large  numbers  of  tourists 


BRITISH  TSLES 


169 


Australia,  Papua,  New  Zealand,  Fiji,  the  Tonga  Islands, 
the  Solomon  Islands,  and  the  Gilbert  Islands ;  (in  Africa) 
St.  Helena,  Nigeria,  Gold  Coast,  Sierra  Leone,  Gambia, 
Somaliland,  British  East  Africa,  Nyasaland,  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  Rhodesia,  Bechuanaland,  the  Anglo- 
Egyptian  Sudan,  and  other  areas  in  Africa  of  lesser 
importance;  (in  America)  Canada,  Newfoundland  and 
Labrador,  British  Honduras,  British  Guiana,  Bermuda, 
British  West  Indies,  and  the  Falkland  Islands.  Since  the 
World  War  (1914-1918)  the  British  people  have  control 
and  direction  of  affairs  in  most  of  the  former  colonies  of 
Germany. 

The  British  dominions  and  colonies  have  been,  and 
are,  of  very  great  value  to  the  people  of  Great  Britain. 
They  have  served  as  countries  to  which  British  people 
could  emigrate,  and  where  British  capital  could  be  in- 
vested.   Foods  and  large  quantities  of  raw  material  are 


Fig.  335.    The  man  in  this  picture  is  spreading  out  linen  on  a  bleaching 

green  near  Belfast.    Here  the  linen  will  grow  white  as  it  lies  on  the  grass 

in  the  sun.   Why  is  the  Irish  linen  industry  located  in  the  neighborhood  of 

Belfast  ?   Where  do  the  linen  manufacturers  get  their  flax  ? 

imported  from  them,  and  many  manufactured  goods  are 
sent  in  return.  A  serious  defeat  at  sea  would  mean  dis- 
aster to  England's  industries,  and  possibly  starvation  to 
her  people. 

The  great  merchant  marine,  the  cables,  wireless  teleg- 
raphy, and  the  habit  of  travel  have  helped  to  hold  the 
different  parts  of  the  commonwealth  together. 

Government.  The  British  government  is  a  limited 
monarchy.  The  king  inherits  his  position,  but  his 
power  is  limited.  The  executive  power  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  Cabinet  headed  by  a  Prime  Minister.  Parliament, 
which  controls  most  of  the  affairs  of  the  nation,  consists 
of  a  House  of  Lords  and  a  House  of  Commons.  The 
members  of  the  House  of  Lords  inherit  their  positions, 
but  the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  are  elected 
by  the  people. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  great  explorers  came 
to  America  from  the  British  Isles  ?  2.  What  countries  are  in- 
cluded in  Great  Britain  ?  3.  What  are  the  two  divisions  of  Ire- 
land ?   4.  How  wide  is  the  strait  between  England  and  France  ? 


Fig.  336.  This  is  a  view  in  one  of  the  shipbuilding  yards  at  Belfast.  The 
hull  of  a  great  ocean  liner  has  been  completed  and  it  is  ready  to  be  launched. 
When  the  signal  is  given,  it  will  slide  off  backward  into  the  water.  After 
it  is  afloat  the  workmen  will  install  the  machinery  and  build  all  the  upper 
parts  of  the  ship 

5.  What  natural  regions  extend  into  these  islands  ?  6.  What 
is  the  highest  mountain  in  Scotland?  See  Fig.  311.  7.  Why  should 
there  be  heavy  rainfall,  with  many  mists  and  fogs,  in  these  islands? 
8.  Why  are  the  changes  in  temperature  during  the  year  less  than 
on  the  mainland  ? 

9.  Why  did  manufacturing  become  so  important  in  these  islands? 
10.  What  have  you  seen  that  was  manufactured  in  England  ?  in 
Ireland  ?  11.  What  natural  advantages  has  London  ?  Liverpool  ? 
Sheffield?  Belfast? 

12.  Of  what  value  are  the  foreign  dominions  to  the  people  of 
Great  Britain  ?  13.  What  advantages  are  there  for  these  domin- 
ions in  belonging  to  the  British  Commonwealth  ?  14.  What  city 
is  the  capital  of  the  commonwealth  ?  15.  About  how  long  does  it 
take  to  make  the  ocean  voyage  from  New  York  to  Liverpool  ? 


Publishers'  Pboto  Service,  Inc. 


Fig.  337.  This  is  the  harbor  at  Malta.  See  map  on  page  161,  H  8.  The 
large  ship  in  this  picture  has  stopped  here  to  take  on  coal.  It  is  on  its  way 
from  England  to  Sydney  in  Australia.  Turn  to  Appendix,  Plate  B,  and 
trace  its  route.  How  long  does  this  voyage  take  ?  What  products  will  this 
ship  bring  back  to  England  ? 


170 


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172 


NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN 


At  Trondhjem  during  two 
of  the  summer  months  the 
nights  are  light.  The  sun 
goes  below  the  horizon  about 
midnight,  but  not  far  enough 
to  cause  absolute  darkness. 
During  two  of  the  winter 
months  the  days  are  dark, 
for  the  sun  is  below  the 
horizon  except  for  a  short 
time  about  noon. 

Natural  resources.  1.  Turn  to 
the  map  opposite  page  216  first. 
Where  is  the  tundra  of  Scan- 
dinavia ?  2.  Is  there  any  other 
part  of  Scandinavia  without 
forest  ?  3.  Turn  to  the  maps  on 
pages  171  and  201.  Where  are 
there  iron  deposits  ?    4.  What 

kinds  of  fish  are  found  in  the  shallow  waters  of  the   Baltic  ? 
5.  Where  in  the  vicinity  of  Norway  are  cod  and  herring  found  ? 

6.  From  a  study  of  the  two  maps  referred  to,  where  should 
you  expect  to  find  the  best  agricultural  lands  ?  7.  Where  is 
water-power  likely  to  be  abundant  ?  8.  From  a  study  of  the 
maps  make  a  list  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  Scandinavian 
Peninsula.  9.  How  may  the  beautiful  scenery  of  Norway  be  made 
a  valuable  natural  resource  ? 


Fig.  339.  Here  is  a  family  of  Laplanders  whose  home  is  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula.  Notice  the  shape  of  their  house.  Of 
what  materials  do  you  suppose  it  is  made  ?  At  the  left  are  two  reindeer. 
What  other  people  who  keep  herds  of  reindeer  have  you  studied  about  ? 


lowland  area  near  the  coast, 
where  there  are  a  number  of 
settlements.  The  Swedish 
people  live  chiefly  in  the 
southern  portion  of  their 
country. 

Occupations  in  Sweden.  On 
the  Baltic  Lowland  of  Swe- 
den agriculture  is  carried  on. 
The  chief  crops  are  oats,  rye, 
barley,  potatoes,  and  sugar 
beets  (Fig.  340).  A  small 
amount  of  wheat  is  raised. 
Much  of  Sweden  is  good 
pasture  land,  and  a  large 
part  of  the  population  is 
engaged  in  caring  for  the 
cattle  and  in  dairying. 
Both  of  these  occupations  are  increasing  in  importance. 
Lumbering  and  the  manufacture  of  woodenware  and 
paper  are  next  in  importance  to  agriculture.  A  Swede 
named  Lundstrom  invented  friction  matches,  and  the 
manufacture  of  matches  has  become  an  immense  indus- 
try in  Sweden.    Logs  are  imported  from  Finland  and 


Distribution  of  people. 


Russia  to  supply  the  need  of  wood  in  the  match  factories, 
In  the  Far  North  tribes  of  Lap-     and  thousands  of  tons  of  matches  are  exported  each 


landers  wander  about  with  their  herds  of  reindeer  or  live 
in  small  fishing  villages.  During  the  winter  they  often 
travel  southward  into  the  forested  region,  and  some- 
times a  few  of  them  even  reach  Stockholm  (Fig.  339). 
The  mountainous  portion  of  the  Scandinavian  Penin- 
sula is  but  thinly  populated.  Most  of  the  Norwegian 
people  live  in  cities  or  villages  near  or  at  the  heads  of 
the  great  fiords.  In  southeastern  Norway  there  is  a  little 


year.    Many  of  the  Swedish  people  are  engaged  in  the 
herring  fisheries  of  the  Baltic  Sea. 

Large  numbers-  of  workmen  are  needed  at  the  iron 
mines.  The  iron  ore  is  so  valuable  that  a  railroad  has 
been  built  across  the  Kiolen  Range  of  the  Northwest  High- 
lands to  a  point  on  the  Norwegian  coast  where  the  harbor 
is  never  ice-bound.  Much  of  this  ore  is  shipped  to  England 
to  be  smelted,  because  of  the  lack  of  coal  in  Scandinavia. 


Fig.  340.    These  women  are  weeding  a  field  of 

sugar  beets  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Baltic 

Lowland.  What  kind  of  soil  is  found  here  ?  What 

other  crops  are  raised  in  this  region  ? 


Fig.  341.  The  passenger  and  freight  boats  steam 

far  up  the  Norwegian  fiords,  stopping  here  and 

there  at  the  little  fishing  villages.    Describe  the 

life  of  the  people  in  these  villages 


Kijstone  View 


Fig.  342.    This  Norwegian  farmer  has  been  cut- 
ting hay  in  the  mountain  valley  above  his  home. 
The  bundles  of  hay  are  fastened  to  a  trolley  and 
allowed  to  slide  down  to  the  barn 


NORWAY  AND  SWEDEN 


173 


'Mk 

1 

m 

i 

m 

n 

jjfSWlgfeV 

•■■--" 

i\  4 

g 

..- . ..  - 

■■ 

^^^^ 

Fig.  343.  The  city  of  Bergen  has  grown  up  at  the  head  of  a  deep  fiord  which 
forms  an  excellent  harbor.  Locate  Bergen  on  the  map  on  page  171.  What 
is  its  latitude  ?  How  does  its  climate  compare  with  that  of  the  east  coast 
of  North  America  in  the  same  latitude  ?    What  are  the  leading  exports  ? 

Occupations  in  Norway.  About  70  per  cent  of  Norway 
is  barren,  and  about  20  per  cent  is  forested ;  therefore 
the  occupations  of  the  people  are  chiefly  connected  with 
the  sea.  Life  along  the  fiords  makes  the  people  thor- 
oughly familiar  with  the  water.  Everyone  there  knows 
how  to  use  a  boat,  and  nearly  every  man  knows  how  to 
build  one.  Here  shipbuilding  is  a  very  important  industry. 

At  the  heads  of  many  of  the  fiords  there  are  small 
areas  that  are  cultivated.  Here  vegetables  and  a  little 
grain  and  hay  are  raised.  In  the  small  lowland  area  in 
the  southeast  there  are  good  farms.  High  in  the  moun- 
tain valleys  some  hay  is  made,  for  it  is  very  important 
to  provide  fodder  for  the  cows  (Fig.  342). 

Many  Norwegian  fishermen  go  each  year  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  to  engage  in  seal  and  whale  fishing,  and  others  go 
to  the  North  Sea  for  cod  and  herring 
or  to  the  waters  around  the  Lofoten 
Islands  to  fish  for  cod.  Norway  has 
furnished  many  excellent  seamen, 
and  Norwegian  ships  are  seen  in 
all  ports  of  the  world.  The  beauti- 
ful coasts  and  wonderful  mountain 
scenery  bring  thousands  of  tourists 
to  Norway,  and  the  care  of  these 
people  has  become  an  important 
occupation. 

Cities.  Nearly  all  the  cities  of  the 
Scandinavian  Peninsula  are  along 
the  coast.  Christiania,  the  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Norway,  is  in  the 
most  fertile  part  of  that  country,  on 
Christiania  Fiord.    Bergen,  the  next  city  in  size,  is  an 


Fig.  345.   This  is  a  view  in  a  Swedish  peasant's 

home.    The  beds  are  built  into  the  walls  like 

berths,  and  are  hung  with  curtains.    Notice  the 

fireplace  and  the  old  grandfather's  clock 


Fig.  344.  Stockholm  is  an  important  port  and  shipbuilding  center.  This 
is  a  view  of  the  shipping  district  of  the  city.  At  the  left  is  the  railroad. 
Along  the  water-front  are  the  business  buildings  and  warehouses.  Why  is 
the  location  of  Stockholm  less  .fortunate  for  a  port  than  that  of  Bergen  ? 

are  Hammerfest  and  Tromso.  The  chief  interest  of  these 
cities  lies  in  the  whale  and  seal  fisheries. 

Stockholm,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Sweden,  is 
located  on  Lake  Malar.  It  is  built  upon  islands  and 
is  sometimes  called  "  The  Venice  of  the  North."  It 
has  wide  streets,  large  buildings,  and  many  bridges 
(Fig.  344).  The  palace  of  the  king  is  on  one  of  the 
islands.  Upsala,  the  former  capital,  is  a  university  town. 
Gbteborg,  the  chief  port  for  exports,  is  connected  with 
Stockholm  by  canal  and  rail.  Its  harbor  is  rarely  frozen, 
while  the  Baltic  ports  are  blocked  with  ice  for  three  or 
four  months  each  year.  Norrkbping,  where  there  are 
cotton,  woolen,  and  flour  mills,  is  the  chief  industrial 
center  of  Sweden.  Machinery  is  also  manufactured  at 
Norrkoping.    The  port  of  Malmb  is  a  busy  railway  center. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What 
part  of  Norway  should  you  most  like  to 
visit  ?  2.  When  should  you  prefer  to  go 
there  ?  3.  What  should  you  expect  to  see  ? 
4.  Why  has  Norway  not  become  a  great 
manufacturing  country  ?  5.  Why  is  Swe- 
den more  of  an  agricultural  country  than 
Norway  ? 

6.  Why  has  Sweden  a  drier  climate  than 
Norway?  7.  Why  should  the  ports  of 
Sweden  freeze,  while  those  of  Norway  re- 
main open  throughout  the  winter  ?  8.  What 
industries  have  the  Swedish  people  devel- 
oped ?  9.  Locate  Lapland  on  the  map  on 
page  201.  What  are  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  Laplanders  ?  10.  How  is  the  rein- 
deer valuable  to  the  Laplanders  ? 

11.  Why  are  there  no  large  inland  cities 
on  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula  ?  12.  What 
is  the  capital  of  Norway  ?    of  Sweden  ?    13.  Why  have  so  many 


important    fish-curing   center.    Enormous  quantities  of     Norwegians  become  seafaring  people  ?   14.  What  natural  resource 
fish  are  shipped  from  this  port  (Fig.  343).    In  the  north     of  great  importance  in  manufacturing  is  almost  lacking  in  Sweden? 


174 


DENMARK 


DH.JNJYLAKK  lacking.   There  are  also  large  plants  where  engines  and 

The  kingdom  of  Denmark  comprises  the  peninsula  of  steel  ships  are  built,  and  factories  where  gloves  are  made. 
Jutland  and  a  group  of  islands  lying  at  the  entrance  to  Denmark  has  a  large  commercial  fleet,  and  many  of 
the  Baltic  Sea.  The  islands,  which  are  more  thickly  the  people  are  engaged  in  the  shipping  trade, 
settled  than  the  mainland  of  Denmark,  are  close  to  the  Copenhagen  (trading  haven),  the  capital  and  the  only 
most  densely  populated  portions  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  large  city  of  Denmark,  is  located  on  the  narrow  sound 
and  the  people  of  the  three  countries  have  many  interests  which  separates  Denmark  from  Sweden.  It  commands 
in  common.  the  important  trade  route  from  the  Baltic  to  the  North 

Physical  features.     Denmark  is  a  lowland  country.     Sea  (Fig.  346). 
See  map  on  page  171.   Most  of  the  coast  is  sandy,  and         Colonial  possessions.   Greenland  and  the  Faroe  Islands 
bordering  the  shore  the  waters  are  very  shallow  and  there     are  possessions  of  Denmark.    The  Faroe  Islands  supply 

the  home  country 
with  wool  and 
mutton,  as  well  as 
with  large  quan- 
tities of  fish. 

Greenland  is  an 
ice-capped  island. 
The  interior  is  a 
vast  plateau  of  ice, 
9000  feet  high  in 
some  places.  The 
ice  is  probably 
thousands  of  feet 
thick,  and  moves 
outward  toward 
the  shore,  where 
in  some  places  it 
breaks  off  and 
forms  icebergs.  It 
is  like  the  great 
ice-sheets  which 
were  formerly  on 
the  North  American  continent  and  on  northwestern 
Europe.  About  the  shore  of  Greenland  there  is  a 
fringe  of  old,  worn-down  mountains.   Off  the  east  coast 


are  lagoons  shut  in 
by  shifting  sand 
bars.  There  are, 
therefore,  no  very 
good  harbors  here. 
The  harbor  at  Co- 
penhagen is  the 
only  one  that  can 
be  entered  by  the 
largest  ocean-going 
vessels.  The  sur- 
face of  the  land 
is  a  gently  rolling 
plain  dotted  with 
marshes  and  ponds . 

Almost  every- 
where the  soils 
consist  of  glacial 
deposits  left  by 
the  melting  of  the 
great  European  ice- 
sheets    (Fig.  317). 

Climate.  Cold,  raw,  misty  winds  bring  an  abundance 
of  moisture  to  Denmark,  and  there  is  sufficient  rainfall 
for  agriculture  and  stock-raising. 

Natural  resources  and  occupations.  Four  fifths  of  Den- 
mark is  farm  land,  and  about  one  half  of  this  is  being 
used  for  pasture.    Dairy-farming  is  the  chief  occupation 


Fig.  346.  This  is  a  view  of  the  harbor  of  Copenhagen.  Study  the  location  of  Copenhagen  on  the 
map  on  page  171,  and  notice  how  near  it  is  to  Malmo  in  Sweden.  Trains  from  Stockholm  are 
ferried  across  the  water  between  Malmo  and  Copenhagen.  Why  is  the  location  of  Copenhagen 
favorable  to  commercial  growth  ?   What  things  have  the  ships  in  this  view  brought  to  the  city  ? 

What  will  they  carry  away  ? 


there  is  a  cold  current,  making  the  climate  so  severe 
that  the  east  coast  is  not  inhabited.  On  the  west  coast 
there  is  a  narrow  belt  of  green  tundra  country,  which 
of  the  people.  Cooperative  creameries  have  been  estab-  explains  why  the  Danish  explorer,  Eric  the  Red,  who 
lished  by  the  farmers,  and  they  are  carried  on  most  sys-  discovered  this  land,  gave  it  the  name  "  Greenland." 
tematically.    Large  quantities  of  butter  are  exported.     The  native  people  are  Eskimos.    They  fish  and  hunt  the 


The  skim  milk  is  used  for  fattening  hogs,  which  are  later 
sent  to  cooperative  packing-houses.  The  productive  land 
is  Denmark's  greatest  resource,  and  farming  will  always 
be  of  first  importance  to  the  country. 

The  fishing  grounds  near  Denmark  furnish  an  addi- 
tional food  supply  and  a  profitable  occupation  for  a 
large  number  of  men.  A  supply  of  clay,  some  of  which 
is  of  fine  quality,  is  the  only  valuable  mineral  resource, 
and  it  has  led  to  the  manufacture  of  pottery.  The  peat 
of  the  marshes  provides  some  fuel,  but  coal  is  entirely 


seal,  walrus,  and  other  fur-bearing  animals.    The  largest 
settlement  is  Julianehaab,  which  has  a  population  of  2500. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Describe  briefly  the  physi- 
cal features  of  Denmark.  2.  Why  are  there  not  many  good  har- 
bors ?  3.  Where  is  the  best  harbor  in  Denmark  ?  4.  With  what 
countries  do  the  Danish  people  naturally  trade  and  have  many 
interests  in  common  ?  5.  Why  should  there  be  an  abundance  of 
moisture  in  Denmark  ?  6.  Why  has  dairy  farming  become  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  people  ?  7.  What  other  occupations  are 
followed  ?  8.  What  is  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  Denmark  ? 
9.  What  colonial  possessions  has  Denmark? 


THE  NETHERLANDS 


175 


^^V^'    *  T  *         .,JHfcT 

iBtaai'i 

jm3^^9P^B 

^*MJk 

Fig.  347.  Scattered  along  the  shores  of  the  fiords  of  Iceland  are  little  fishing 

villages  like  the  one  in  this  view.   Nearly  all  the  people  of  these  villages 

depend  upon  fishing  for  their  living.    Except  for  a  few  small  vegetable 

gardens  they  do  no  farming,  but  most  of  them  own  a  little  live-stock 

ICELAND 

Iceland  was  for  a  long  time  a  colonial  possession  of 
Denmark,  but  in  1919  the  mother  country  granted  inde- 
pendence to  the  people  of  this  island.  It  is  a  very  large 
mountainous  island  with  a  coast  indented  by  fiords 
except  on  the  south  side.  It  rises  to  an  elevation  of 
6400  feet,  and  the  greater  part  is  covered  with  snow  or 
ice.  In  the  southwest  there  is  a  very  small  lowland  area 
where  the  few  inhabitants  live.  There  are  over  one  hun- 
dred volcanoes  on  the  island  and  many  geysers  and  hot 
springs.  The  country  is  too  cold  for  agriculture,  but 
there  are  rich  pastures  where  sheep,  cattle,  and  ponies 
are  raised.  Fishing  also  is  an  occupation  followed  by 
many  of  the  people  (Fig.  347).  Large  quantities  of  down 
are  secured  from  the  eider  duck.  The  capital  of  Iceland 
is  Reykjavik,  which  is  on  the  western  side  of  the  island. 


Underwood  &  Underwood 


Fig.  348.  This  is  a  typical  scene  on  the  polders  of  the  Netherlands.  In  the 
distance  are  the  Dutch  windmills.  In  the  foreground  are  a  few  of  the  many 
cattle  which  feed  on  the  grasses  of  these  fertile  meadow  lands.  Find  out 
what  the  word  "nether"  means,  and  explain  why  this  country  is  called 

the  Netherlands 


THE  NETHERLANDS 

The  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  is  also  known  as 
Holland.  It  is  a  small  country,  about  the  size  of  Massa- 
chusetts and  Connecticut  combined,  but  commercially  it 
is  very  important.   ■ 

Physical  features.  The  low,  marshy  lands  are  the  delta, 
of  the  Rhine.  Tidal  currents  coming  from  the  north  and 
south  along  tbe  west  coast  meet  opposite  the  mouth  of 
the  Rhine.  The  water  here  is  therefore  almost  quiet, 
allowing  the  sands  and  silts  brought  by  the  river  to 
settle  and  make  a  delta.  Elsewhere  about  the  shores  of 
the  North  Sea  the  tides  rush  into  the  mouths  of  the  rivers 
and  then  out  again,  clearing  away  the  sands  and  silts.  The 
Rhine  has  the  only  large  delta  in  this  part  of  Europe. 

Reclaiming  the 
land.  A  large  part 
of  the  Nether- 
lands was  of  little 
real  value  to  man 
until  the  Dutch 
people  constructed 
strong  dikes  and 
sea  walls  which 
keep  the  sea  out. 
They  drained  por- 
tions of  the  wet 
meadow  land  by 
cutting  drainage 
canals  that  car- 
ried the  waters 
to  lower  swamps 
and  to  lagoons. 
A  number  of  the 
meadows  were  in- 
closed with  dikes, 

and  by  pumping  the  water  out  they  made  these  meadows 
fit  to  cultivate.  Little  by  little  Holland  has  been  made 
into  a  fertile  country,  three  fourths  of  which  is  very 
productive.  Thousands  of  windmills  are  still  used  in 
pumping  the  water  from  the  low  meadows,  or  polders 
(Fig.  348),  but  electric  pumps  are  rapidly  replacing  the 
large,  picturesque  Dutch  mills  (Fig.  349). 

Although  the  reclaiming  of  land  from  the  marshes 
and  lagoons  has  steadily  continued,  more  food-producing 
land  is  needed.  The  privations  which  resulted  from  the 
great  World  War  have  spurred  the  Dutch  nation  to  renew 
their  efforts  to  drain  a  large  part  of  the  Zuider  Zee.  The 
Zuider  Zee  is  an  inland  body  of  water  so  nearly  inclosed 
that  it  looks  like  a  lake.  Plans  are  now  being  made  for 
work  that  will  cover  a  period  of  thirty  years  and  will 
reclaim  400,000  acres  of  land  for  farming  and  grazing. 
See  map  on  page  171. 


Courtesy  of  William.,  Brown,  and  Earl* 

Fig.  349.    A  nearer  view  of  a  Dutch  windmill 

shows  how  large  these  mills  are.    Compare  the 

size  of  the  mill  with  the  buildings  beside  it. 

What  use  is  made  of  these  windmills  ? 


176 


THE  NETHERLANDS 


Floods.  At  times  the 
storm  waves  have  succeeded 
in  breaking  through  the 
line  of  dunes  that  border 
the  coast,  and  terrible  floods 
have  resulted.  In  many 
places,  however,  the  sand 
dunes,  where  they  form  a 
sufficiently  broad  belt,  serve 
as  natural  dikes. 

Natural  resources  and  oc- 
cupations. About  two  fifths 
of  Holland  is  pasture  land, 
and  dairy  farming  has  very 
naturally  become  the  lead- 
ing occupation  (Fig.  348). 
Butter  and  cheese  are 
among  the  chief  exports. 
Excellent  breeds  of  cattle  are  raised,  and  large  quantities 
of  cottonseed  meal  and  corn  are  imported  to  feed  the 


Courtcej  of  Joseph  W.  Wort  hen 

Fig.  350.    Along  the  shores  of  the  Zuider  Zee  are  little  Dutch  fishing 

villages.  The  fishermen  build  their  trim  little  houses  along  the  water-front 

and  moor  their  boats  close  by.  What  kinds  of  fish  do  the  Dutch  fishermen 

catch  ?  Why  is  the  North  Sea  such  an  excellent  fishing  ground  ? 


and  chocolate  have  become 
important  in  the  industrial 
life  of  Holland.  Great  mills 
for  making  woolen  and  cot- 
ton goods  and  for  manu- 
facturing linen  have  been 
established. 

The  lowlands  contain  ex- 
cellent clays,  and  Dutch 
pottery,  especially  delft- 
ware,  has  become  famous 
throughout  the  civilized 
world.  The  loose,  rich  soil 
is  excellent  for  raising 
flower  bulbs,  which  are  ex- 
ported in  large  quantities. 
Fishing  and  shipbuilding 
are  also  important  occupa- 
tions of  the  people  of  Holland  (Figs.  350,  353). 

Colonial  possessions.    The  Dutch  early  realized  that 


cattle.   In  this  portion  of  Europe  the  climate  is  always     they  had  no  great  natural  resources  in  their  country, 


mild,  and  the  pastures  remain  green  throughout  the  year. 
There  are  no  coal  or  iron  deposits  in  this  country, 
and  yet,  since  Holland  is  so  favorably  situated  in  the 
midst  of  the  densest  populations  of  Europe,  manufac- 
turing has  become  important.  Windmills  are  used  to 
run  the  machinery  in  many  of  the  factories  and  saw- 


and  many  of  them  followed  the  sea  or  became  fishermen. 
When  the  overland  routes  through  Asia  Minor  to  the 
Orient  were  closed  on  account  of  troubles  with  the  Turks, 
the  Dutch  traders  undertook  to  go  around  Africa  to 
reach  the  lands  where  spices,  sugar,  and  rice  could  be 
obtained.    They  followed  the  routes  of  Portuguese  ex- 


mills.    Coal  and  iron  are  imported  from  England  and  plorers  and  established  several  colonies  among  the  East 

Belgium,  and  raw  materials  are  brought  in  large  quan-  Indies.  See  Appendix,  Plate  A.  These  islands  are  now  the 

tities  from  the  Rhine  valley  and  from  the  Dutch  East  most  valuable  Dutch  possessions,  and  four  fifths  of  their 

Indies.    Sugar  refining  and  the  manufacture  of  cocoa  trade  is  with  the  mother  country.    See  map  on  page  260. 


Fig.  351.    This  boy  is  a  Dutch  street  merchant. 

He  harnesses  his  faithful  dog  to  a  little  cart,  loads 

it  with  the  baskets  containing  his  wares,  and  goes 

through  the  streets  selling  them 


Fig.  352.  These  Dutchmen  are  wearing  the  pictur- 
esque native  costumes  which  are  now  seen  only  in 
the  small  villages.  In  the  cities  the  people  wear 
clothes  very  much  like  our  own 


Fig.  353.   The  boys  and  girls  in  this  picture  live 

in  a  Dutch  fishing  village.    Their  fathers  are  all 

fishermen.    Notice  their  wooden  shoes  and  the 

white  caps  worn  by  the  little  girls 


BELGIUM 


177 


.-  ■  .  ■  ■■■ 

,-. 

i 

VI 

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7" 

■t'k  1 

i 

IxoZk 

iNmI 

Fig.  354.   Rotterdam  is  a  city  of  many  canals.  The  larger  canals  are  deep 

enough  to  allow  the  passage  of  the  heavily  laden  ships  from  the  Dutch  East 

Indies.  What  tropical  products  do  these  ships  bring  to  Rotterdam?  To  what 

countries  are  these  products  exported  ? 

The  Dutch  also  hold  a  few  islands  in  the  West  Indies 
and  have  a  colony  on  the  north  coast  of  South  America. 
Through  their  efforts  to  own  other  lands  they  now 
control  an  area  sixty  times  as  great  as  that  of  their 
home  country. 

Cities.  Rotterdam  is  the  leading  commercial  city  of 
Holland.  Some  manufacturing  is  done  there,  and  the 
excellence  of  the  shipping  facilities  makes  it  one  of  the 


Fig.  355.   Amsterdam  is  also  a  city  of  canals.    The  land  on  which  it  is 
situated  is  so  low  and  so  water-soaked  that  all  the  houses  are  built  on  piles 
to  keep  them  from  sinking.   The  canals  divide  the  city  into  nearly  a  hun- 
dred islands,  all  connected  by  bridges 

BELGIUM 

Belgium  has  twenty  times  as  many  people  per  square 
mile  as  has  the  United  States,  and  is  the  most  densely 
populated  country  in  Europe.  With  England's  busy 
mines  and  factories  to  the  west,  the  industrial  por- 
tions of  Germany  and  northern  France  to  the  east  and 
south,  and  commercial  Holland  to  the  north,  Belgium  is 


busiest  ports  in  Europe.    A  great  part  of  the  foreign     in  the  heart  of  industrial  Europe. 

trade  of  Rotterdam  consists  in  re-exporting  the  products         Physical  features.    This  country  is  smaller  than  either 

which  come  from  the  East  Indies,  such  as  spices,  sugar,     Holland  or  Denmark.    It  contains  about  11,700  square 


coffee,  and  rubber.  In  addition  to  its 
vast  overseas  commerce  it  is  the 
natural  outlet  for  the  valley  of  the 
Rhine  (Fig.  354). 

Amsterdam,  the  village  built  on 
the  dike  of  the  river  Amstel,  was  for 
three  centuries  a  port  of  the  Zuider 
Zee  and  commanded  much  of  the 
commerce  of  the  Baltic.  Its  harbor 
began  to  fill  with  sand,  and  dredging 
was  found  to  be  of  no  avail,  so  a 
ship  canal  was  cut  to  the  North  Sea. 
The  Zuider  Zee  lost  its  commercial 
importance,  and  Amsterdam  became 
a  North  Sea  port  (Fig.  355).  It  is  an 
important  banking  and  manufactur- 
ing center  and  is  particularly  noted 
for  its  diamond-cutting  industry. 
Between  Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam 
is  The  Hague,  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom. Leiden  has  a  large  publishing 
trade.  Utrecht,  the  chief  inland  town, 
is  an  important  railroad  junction. 


Fig.  356.    The  city  hall  at  Brussels  faces  the 

market  place.  The  part  of  the  building  which  can 

be  seen  in  this  view  was  completed  nearly  fifty 

years  before  Columbus  discovered  America 


miles,  which  is  a  little  less  than  the 
area  of  the  state  of  Maryland. 

Along  the  coast  there  is  a  belt 
of  sand  dunes,  and  offshore  the 
waters  are  shallow.  The  lowland 
of  Belgium  is  a  part  of  the  Cen- 
tral Plains  of  Europe,  which  widens 
southward  into  France  and  eastward 
into  Germany.  It  is  an  agricultural 
land.  The  upland  area  in  the  south- 
east is  a  part  of  the  Central  High- 
lands. The  elevations  here  reach  to 
about  2000  feet,  and  on  the  hills 
there  are  pastures  and  forests. 

Climate.  The  climate  is  much  like 
that  of  southern  England,  wdth  cool 
summers  and  mild  winters.  Since 
the  hills  are  on  the  eastern  side,  the 
effect  of  the  moist  winds  from  the 
ocean  is  felt  throughout  Belgium, 
and  the  rainfall  is  greater  than  that 
of  Germany  and  the  countries  farther 
east  on  the  continent. 


178 


BELGIUM 


Underwood  &  Underwood 


Fig.  357.   The  rich  pasture  lands  of  Belgium  have 

made  it  possible  for  the  people  to  raise  the  finest 

draft  horses  in  the  world.   What  other  kinds  of 

live-stock  do  the  Belgians  raise  ? 


Fig.  358.    These  men  are  putting  bundles  of  flax 

to  soak  in  the  river  Lys.    This  soaking  process, 

which  is  called  retting,  separates  the  flax  fiber 

from  the  softer  parts  of  the  stalk 


Fig.  359.    Belgian  dogs  are  wonderfully  intelli- 
gent. This  dog  is  his  mistress's  faithful  helper, 
drawing  her  cart  through  the  streets  every  day  as 
she  delivers  milk  to  her  customers 


Natural  resources.    The  soils  of  the  lowlands  and  the  Cities.   Antwerp,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt,  is  the 

timber  and  pastures  of  the  uplands  are  valuable  resources,  great  seaport  of  Belgium  and  is  connected  by  railroads 

Belgium  is  also  fortunate  in  having  a  remarkable  network  and  canal  systems  with  all  parts  of  the  country  (Figs, 

of  navigable  streams  connected  by  canals.  361,  363).    Brussels,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  located 

The  coal  located  near  the  French  border  is  the  princi-  in  the  central  part,  is  a  city  of  beautiful  buildings  and 

pal  mineral  resource.    Farther  east,  iron  and  zinc  have  modern  streets  (Figs.  356,  362).    It  has  become  the  lead- 


been  found.  The  local  iron  supply  is  nearly  exhausted,  and 
iron  is  now  imported  for  the  modern  industrial  plants. 
There  are  beds  of  excellent  sands  along  the  seacoast, 
which  have  led  to  the  growth  of  large  glassworks. 

Occupations.  The  farms  of  Belgium,  although  usually 
small,  are  very  carefully  cultivated.  The  principal  crops 
are  grains,  flax,  hemp,  fruit,  and  sugar  beets.  Sheep- 
raising  is  a  second  important  occupation  of  this  country. 


ing  market  for  the  laces  and  gloves  made  in  Belgium. 

Near  the  eastern  margin  of  Belgium  is  the  city  of 
Liege.  It  is  the  chief  industrial  center  of  Belgium. 
The  most  important  manufactured  articles  are  firearms, 
cutlery,  glass,  and  many  kinds  of  machinery.  Ghent  is 
the  center  of  the  textile  industries.  Large  quantities  of 
cotton  and  woolen  goods  are  manufactured  here. 

Colonial  possessions.  Belgian  Congo,  in  central  Africa, 


More  than  half  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  farming     is  a  state  of  Belgium  and  a  very  valuable  possession.   It 


or  in  the  care  of  stock  (Fig.  357).  It 
is  impossible,  however,  to  produce  in 
Belgium  enough  food  for  so  large  a 
population,  and  large  numbers  of 
people  are  engaged  in  commerce  in 
order  to  bring  the  necessary  food 
and  raw  materials  into  the  country. 

Coal-mining  and  the  manufactur- 
ing of  cotton,  wool,  linen,  iron, 
steel,  and  glass  occupy  the  time  of 
another  very  large  portion  of  the 
population. 

Belgium  produces  much  of  the 
world's  best  linen.  Some  of  the  flax 
is  grown  at  home,  but  much  of  it  is 
imported.  The  waters  of  the  Scheldt 
and  the  Lys  have  been  found  excel- 
lent for  retting  and  bleaching  the 
flax  (Fig.  358),  and  the  moist  climate, 
due  to  the  westerly  winds,  is  espe- 
cially favorable  for  handling  the  flax 
in  the  process  of  spinning. 


Courtetj  of  Joseph  \V.  Worth  en 

Fig.  360.  This  is  the  famous  old  belfry  at  Bruges, 

in  Belgium.   It  is  older,  even,  than  the  City  Hall 

of  Brussels.    In  the  belfry  are  some  beautiful 

chimes  which  visitors  always  wish  to  hear 


exports  each  year  great  quantities 
of  gold,  copper,  and  other  minerals, 
as  well  as  large  supplies  of  crude 
rubber,  palm  nuts,  palm  oil,  and 
ivory  (p.  229). 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  De- 
scribe briefly  the  physical  geography  of 
Holland.  2.  Tell  how  the  Dutch  have  re- 
claimed for  agriculture  lands  that  were 
covered  by  the  sea.  3.  How  do  the  people 
of  Holland  make  use  of  the  winds  ?  4.  Why 
should  dairy  farming  be  so  profitable  in 
the  Netherlands  ? 

5.  Explain  how  Holland  has  become 
an  important  manufacturing  country. 
6.  Where  are  the  colonial  possessions  of 
the  Dutch  people  ?  7.  What  are  the  im- 
portant seaports  of  Holland?  8.  What  is 
the  capital  of  Holland  ? 

9.  Describe  the  physical  features  of 
Belgium.  10.  Why  has  Belgium  become 
an  important  industrial  center  ?  What  are 
the  chief  manufactures  ?  11.  Name  the 
capital  and  the  chief  seaport  of  Belgium. 


MAP  STUDIES 


179 


LUXEMBURG 

The  duchy  of  Luxemburg  is  located  in  the  Central 
Highlands  of  Europe  and  just  southeast  from  Belgium. 
It  is  a  small  country  of  about  1000  square  miles.  Iron 
ore  is  abundant,  and  this  has  led  naturally  to  mining, 
smelting,  and  some  manufacturing.  The  hilltops  are  in 
part  forested,  but  in  the  valley  bottoms  and  on  the  lower, 
gentler  slopes  the  lands  are  cultivated. 

Luxemburg  is  the  capital  and  chief  city  of  the  duchy. 


Exclusive  dews  Agcucj,  Roehtmpton 


Fig.  361.  This  is  a  view  along  the  wharves  at  Antwerp.  At  the  right  is 
the  old  castle  of  Antwerp,  called  the  Steen.  The  mouth  of  the  river  Scheldt 
has  been  deepened  to  admit  large  ocean  vessels,  making  Antwerp  one  of 
the  chief  ports  of  Europe.  What  are  the  exports  and  imports  of  Antwerp  ? 

MAP  STUDIES 
(Use  map  between  pages  181  and  184) 

1.  Prepare  the  following  table,  which  shall  have  four  col- 
umns: In  the  first  column  place  the  names  of  the  countries 
entirely  included  within  the  area  of  this  map ;  in  the  second 
column,  opposite  the  names  of  the  countries,  write  the  names 
of  their  chief  seaports ;  in  the  third  column,  opposite  the 
names  of  the  chief  seaports,  place  the  name  of  the  river  on 
which  each  port  is  located ;  in  the  fourth  column  write  the 
name  of  the  capital  of  each  of  the  countries. 

2.  What  seaport  serves  Paris  ?  3.  With  what  countries  is 
most  of  the  trade  of  that  port  carried  on  ?  4.  Judging  from 
the  exports  from  Bordeaux,  what  should  you  think  are  the 
leading  occupations  of  the  people  in  southern  France  ? 

5.  In  which  country  is  a  part  of  the  land  below  sea  level 
and  not  covered  by  water?  The  dotted  area  northeast  of 
Amsterdam  shows  the  land  that  the  Dutch  people  are  plan- 
ning to  reclaim  from  the  Zuider  Zee. 

6.  Judging  from  the  products  in  the  Netherlands,  what 
should  you  think  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people  in  the 
country  districts  ?  7.  In  what  portion  of  Germany  are  the 
coal  and  iron  deposits  ?  8.  Where  are  the  supplies  of  potash 
in  Germany?  9.  What  seaport  serves  Berlin  best  through- 
out the  year?    10.  Describe  the  location  of  the  Kiel  Canal. 


Fig.  362.   This  is  the  Palais  de  Justice  (Palace  of  Justice)  in  Brussels.   It  is 

a  very  large  modern  building,  in  contrast  to  the  many  very  old  buildings 

which  the  city  contains.   Judging  from  its  name,  what  use  do  you  think  is 

made  of  this  great  building  ? 

11.  What  inland  water  route  could  you  follow  from  Rotter- 
dam to  Marseille  ?  12.  Describe  an  inland  water  route  from 
Havre  to  Bordeaux  by  way  of  Lyon.  13.  Describe  the  inland 
water  route  from  Rotterdam  to  Vienna.  If  you  went  on  down 
the  Danube,  what  capital  cities  should  you  pass  ?  To  what  sea 
should  you  finally  come  ? 

14.  Describe  an  inland  water  route  from  Hamburg,  through 
Berlin,  to  Warsaw.  15.  Judging  from  the  products  of  Poland, 
what  must  be  the  occupation  of  most  of  the  people  ?  16.  In 
what  part  of  Poland  is  there  a  supply  of  coal  ?  17.  What 
geographic  advantages  has  the  location  of  Prague  ?  18.  What 
resources  are  found  in  the  mountains  of  Austria  ? 

19.  Judging  from  the  chief  products  of  Hungary,  what 
should  you  think  is  the  principal  occupation  of  the  people  in 
that  country  ?  20.  What  advantage  can  you  see  in  the  loca- 
tion of  a  seaport  as  far  inland  as  ocean  vessels  can  go  ? 
21.  What  seaports  in  Europe  clearly  illustrate  this  advantage  ? 


Fig.  363.  The  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  at  Antwerp  is  the  largest  and  most 

beautiful  church  in  the  Low  Countries.  It  contains  many  beautiful  paintings. 

Among  them  are  the  original  works  of  some  of  the  greatest  European 

painters.  For  many  years  Antwerp  has  been  the  center  of  Belgian  art 


180 


FRANCE 


Fig.  364.  This  is  a  view  of  part  of  the  harbor  of  Dunkirk  on  the  northern 
coast  of  France.  Dunkirk  has  extensive  wharves  and  docks  and  has  become 
the  chief  importing  center  for  the  raw  materials  that  are  needed  for  the 
industrial  district  of  northern  France.    It  is  also  the  principal  exporting 

FRANCE 

Physical  features.  Use  map  on  page  161.  There  is  no 
natural  division  between  Belgium  and  France ;  it  is  a 
purely  political  line.  The  lowland  plain  of  Belgium  con- 
tinues southward,  widening  to  include  the  Paris  Basin, 
and  farther  south  widening  again  in  the  valley  of  the 
Garonne. 

The  uplands  of  southeastern  Belgium  continue  into 
northern  France  and  are  connected  by  a  narrow  upland 
belt  with  the  Central  Plateau  of  France. 

The  Upland  of  Brittany  is  a  hilly  region.  It  is  an  old, 
worn-down  mountain  country.  The  Vosges  Mountains 
in  eastern  France  are  an  old,  worn-down  range.  Farther 
east  are  the  rich  lowlands  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine. 
The  part  of  these  lowlands  that  is  west  of  the  Rhine 
belongs  to  France.  South  of  the  valley  of  the  Garonne 
are  the  young  and  rugged  Pyrenees  Mountains  that  form 
the  boundary  between  France  and  Spain.  In  the  south- 
east beyond  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  are  the  Jura  and  Alps. 

MAP  STUDIES 

1.  Use  map  between  pages  181  and  184.  Locate  the  uplands 
of  Brittany.  2.  Locate  the  lowland  of  the  Saone-Rhone  valley. 
3.  Where  are  the  Jura  Mountains  of  France  ? 

4.  The  boundary  line  between  France  and  Italy  is  along 
the  crest  of  what  mountain  range  ?  How  high  is  Mt.  Blanc  ? 
In  what  country  is  it  located  ?  5.  The  boundary  line  between 
France  and  Spain  is  on  the  crest  of  what  mountain  range  ? 

6.  Locate  the  Vosges  Mountains  and  determine  whether 
or  not  they  are  forested.  See  map  opposite  page  216.  These 
mountains  rise  over  5000  feet  above  sea  level,  and  yet  they 
are  only  the  stumps  of  mountains  which  were  formerly 
lofty  peaks. 


point  for  the  manufactured  goods  of  this  district.  How  should  you  describe 
the  surface  of  the  land  here  ?  Locate  Dunkirk  on  the  map  on  page  171. 
In  what  natural  region  is  it  situated?  Explain  how  the  geographical 
location  of  Dunkirk  has  influenced  its  development  as  an  industrial  port 

7.  Locate  the  Central  Plateau  of  France.  In  this  region 
great  volcanoes  broke  forth  many  years  ago  and  built  up 
cones,  some  of  which  rise  to  elevations  of  6000  feet  above 
the  sea.  Floods  of  lava  have  come  from  these  volcanoes  and 
flowed  out  over  the  surrounding  country. 

8.  What  part  of  the  lowland  of  the  middle  Rhine  belongs 
to  France  ?  9.  What  river  systems  have  been  connected  by 
canals?  More  than  half  of  France  is  less  than  600  feet  in 
elevation.  This  has  made  the  building  of  roads,  canals,  and 
railways  relatively  easy. 

10.  The  sinking  of  western  Europe,  which  also  affected  Eng- 
land and  Scandinavia,  caused  the  drowning  of  the  mouths  of 
the  French  rivers  which  flow  into  the  English  Channel  and 
the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Make  a  list  of  the  large  estuaries  along 
these  shores.  11.  What  state  in  the  United  States  is  of 
about  the  same  size  as  France  ? 

Climate.  The  winds  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  bring 
moisture  and  also  help  to  prevent  great  extremes  in 
temperature  in  France.  Since  the  higher  lands  are  not 
near  the  coast,  the  effect  of  the  winds  is  felt  far  inland. 
In  no  part  of  France  except  on  the  high  mountain  peaks 
is  there  a  long  period  of  winter  frost,  and  only  in  the 
south,  which  has  a  Mediterranean  climate,  are  the  sum- 
mers very  hot. 

The  annual  rainfall  over  most  of  France  is  about  30 
inches,  which  is  enough  for  agriculture.  The  heaviest 
rainfall,  about  70  inches,  is  received  in  the  western  part 
of  the  Pyrenees.  In  the  higher  parts  of  the  Central 
Plateau  and  in  the  Vosges  Mountains  about  60  inches 
of  rain  falls  each  year.  Western  and  northern  France 
receive  rain  during  each  month,  but  in  the  area  border- 
ing the  Mediterranean  the  summers  are  dry  and  the  rain 
comes  during  the  winter. 


FRANCE 


181 


Courtesy  of  Williams,  Brc 


l£)  Underwood  t  Underwood 


Fig.  365.    This  French  farmer  and  his  boys  have 

harvested  their  wheat  and  brought  it  in  from  the 

fields.    They  are  now  threshing  the  grain  and 

winnowing  it  in  a  machine  turned  by  hand 


Fig.  366.  This  French  woman  of  Brittany  is  busy 

mending  one  of  her  husband's  fishing  nets.  What 

kinds  of  fish  are  caught  in  these  nets  ?  What  are 

other  occupations  of  the  people  of  Brittany  ? 


Fig.  367.    Along  the  Brittany  coast  many  acres 

of  tidal  flats  are  used  for  raising  oysters.  The  flats 

are  divided  into  square  beds  where  the  oysters  are 

planted  and  grown  for  the  Paris  market 


Natural  resources.  France  is  a  land  of  much  variety 
but  without  great  wealth  in  mineral  resources.  There 
are  coal  and  iron  fields  in  the  north  along  the  Belgian 
border  and  in  Lorraine,  and  France  owns  the  coal  mines 
in  the  Sarre  valley.  See  map  on  page  171.  There  is  also 
a  good  supply  of  coal  and  iron  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
Central  Plateau  near  St.  Etienne.  These  resources  have 
naturally  encouraged  manufacturing  and  have  given 
rise  to  important  industrial  centers.  Water-power  from 
the  Vosges,  the  Jura,  and  the  Alps  is  of  great  value 
in  the  industrial  development.  The  soils  are  fertile, 
and  the  broad  lowland^aTeas  have  helped  to  make 
France  an  agricultural  country. 

The  rivers  have  furnished  an  easy  and  cheap  means 
of  transportation,  and  France's  position,  bordering  on 
three  important  seas,  affords  distinct  advantages  for 
the  development  of  foreign  commerce. 

Home  work.  1.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  life  of  the 
French  peasants.  2.  Ask  some  acquaintance  who  was  a  soldier 
in  France  to  tell  you  of  t\\e  country  and  of  his  experiences  with 
the  French  people. 

Occupations.  The  mining  and  manufacturing  in  north- 
ern France  have  led  xo  the  growth  of  several  industrial 
centers.  In  Lille,  Valenciennes,  St.  Quentin,  and  Amiens 
woolen,  cotton,  and  linen  goods  are  manufactured. 
Dunkirk  is  the  French  outlet  for  this  industrial  district 
(Fig.  364).  On  the  coast  are  the  fishing  towns  of  Calais 
and  Boulogne  ;  these  towns  are  also  stations  for  the 
channel  boats. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  Vosges,  where  there  is  water- 
power  and    easy  communication  with  coal  fields,  the 


manufacture  of  cotton  has  been  promoted.  Lorraine  is 
the  leading  cotton-manufacturing  center  of  France. 
Much  of  the  cotton  is  brought  from  the  United  States 
and  carried  far  up  the  Seine  and  thence  by  canals  to 
the  manufacturing  towns. 

Some  of  the  cities  located  on  the  larger  navigable 
streams  of  the  lowlands  (notably  Paris  and  Rouen)  are 
important  manufacturing  centers.  Raw  materials  and 
coal  are  easily  brought  to  those  cities. 

The  broad,  open  lowlands  of  the  Paris  Basin  are  used 
for  agriculture.  Here  it  has  been  possible  to  raise  a 
large  part  of  the  wheat  needed  by  the  French  people 
(Fig.  365).  Many  other  cereal  crops  and  large  quantities 
of  sugar  beets  and  flax  are  also  raised  here. 

Over  half  of  the  population  of  France  is  engaged  in 
agriculture.  Those  who  do  the  farming  commonly  own 
their  farms  but  do  not  live  on  them.  They  live  in  small 
villages  and  each  morning  walk  out  perhaps  two  or  three 
miles  to  work.  They  are  a  happy  people,  who  enjoy  their 
work  in  the  fields  and  also  the  social  side  of  village  life. 

In  the  uplands  of  Brittany  the  soil  conditions  are  not 
very  favorable  to  agriculture.  Dairy-farming,  market- 
gardening,  and  sheep-raising  are  commonly  carried  on. 
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people  (Figs.  366,  367).  In  the  highlands  the  quarrying 
of  granite,  for  use  as  building  stone,  is  of  importance. 

The  Central  Plateau  is  far  enough  south  so  that  the 
lower  slopes  can  be  used  for  the  cultivation  of  grapes, 
and  the  manufacture  of  wine  is  carried  on  here.  The 
high  tracts  of  poorer  land  are  used  for  the  grazing  of 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats. 


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184 


FRANCE 


In  the  Alpine  district  the  soils  are  poor,  the  fields  are 
very  limited,  and  the  climate  is  not  suitable  for  growing 
cereals ;  but  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are  raised,  and  manu- 
facturing has  been  undertaken.  Water-power,  which  the 
French  call  white  coal,  is  abundant  in  this  part  of  the 


Courtenj  of  Joseph  W.  U  j:  itien 

Fig.  369.   The  building  with  the  two  towers  is  the  Cathedral  of  No+ie  Dame 
in  Paris.    It  is  situated  on  the  small  island  in  the  Seine  where  the  first 
settlement  of  Paris  was  made.  Find  its  location  in  Fig.  371.  The  construc- 
tion of  this  cathedral  was  begun  over  seven  hundred  years  ago 


Fig.  368.  This  is  a  thriving  silk-manufacturing  town  southeast  of  Lyon. 
It  is  situated  on  the  western  edge  of  the  highlands.  The  long,  low  buildings 
in  the  foreground  are  the  silk  mills.  Why  has  this  district  become  an  im- 
portant silk-manufacturing  center  ?   Where  does  the  raw  silk  come  from  ? 

Near  Limoges,  on  the  western  slope  of  the  plateau,  there 
are  excellent  clays,  which  have  led  to  the  manufacture 
of  china.  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Central  Plateau, 
between  the  Loire  and  the  Rhone,  where  coal  and  iron 
have  been  found,  there  is  an  industrial  center.  The  best 
French  steel  is  produced  in  the  region  of  St.  Etienne.  country  and  has  helped  the  cities  near  the  high  mountains 
Large  quantities  of  raw  silk  are  easily  brought  from  the  to  develop  into  manufacturing  centers  of  importance. 
Rhone  valley,  and  silk  goods  and  ribbons  are  manufac-  Principal  rivers  and  cities.  The  navigable  rivers  of 
tured  here  on  a  large  scale.  A  little  farther  north,  in  the  world  have  always  been  great  highways  of  travel, 
the  valley  of  the  Loire,  is  a  center  for  the  manufacture  and  most  of  the  large  cities  of  the  world  have  developed 
of  cotton  and  woolen  goods.  near  those  rivers.    By  far  the  greater  number  of  the 

The  lowland  of  the  Garonne  valley  is  another  agri-  large  cities  of  France  are  located  on  the  waterways, 
cultural  district  where  wheat  and  maize  are  raised.  The  Paris,  the  capital  of  the  French  republic,  is  a  very 
grapevine  flourishes  in  this  warmer  climate,  and  great     beautiful  city,  with   broad   boulevards   and  numerous 


quantities  of  wine  are  shipped  from  Bordeaux  to  various 
parts  of  the  world. 

Southern  France  has  the  Mediterranean  climate,  and 
here,  in  addition  to  the  grape- 
vine, the  people  cultivate  the 
olive,  plum,  walnut,  and,  in 
some  parts,  orange  and  lemon 
trees.  The  mulberry  is  raised 
for  the  silkworm,  and  Lyon 
has  become  one  of  the  most 
important  centers  in  the 
world  for  the  manufacture  of 
silk  goods  (Fig.  368).  Some 
of  the  silk  used  at  Lyon  is 
produced  in  the  Rhcme  valley, 
but  the  home  supply  is  not 
nearly  enough.  Great  quanti- 
ties of  raw  silk  are  imported 
every  year  from  Italy,  China, 
and  Japan. 


Fig.  370.   The  wharves  at  Marseille  are  always  crowded  with  freignt. 

Some  of  the  goods  are  imports  which  will  be  sent  by  train  to  different 

parts  of  France.    Others  are  exports  ready  to  be  loaded  on  ships  for 

various  parts  of  the  world.   Name  some  of  these  goods 


buildings  of  unusual  interest  (Figs.  369,  371).  In  its 
great  museums  are  many  of  the  world's  most  precious 
works  of  art.    This  city  is  located  on  the  Seine  and  is 

in  the  midst  of  a  rich  agri- 
cultural country.  It  is  also  on 
the  highway  of  travel  from 
the  Mediterranean  countries 
northward  through  the  valley 
of  the  Saone-Rh&ne  system 
and  down  the  valley  of  the 
Seine.  Paris  is  an  important 
railroad  center  and  is  also  a 
port  for  the  smaller  ocean- 
going vessels. 

Many  different  industries 
were  established  here  because 
it  was  easy  to  bring  in  raw 
material  and  to  distribute 
manufactured  goods  from 
this  center. 


FRANCE 


185 


Picture  study.    Fig.  371.    1.  On  what  river  is  Paris  situated  ? 

2.  How  should  you  describe  the  country   surrounding   Paris  ? 

3.  What  river  joins  the  Seine  southeast  of  the  city  ?  4.  What  can 
you  tell  about  the  Maine  ?  5.  Notice  the  ring  of  forts  which  sur- 
rounds Paris.  How  many  forts  are  there  ?  These  forts,  like  the 
wall,  were  built  many  years  ago,  when  it  was  believed  that  every 
great  city  should  be  strongly  protected  against  attack.  To-day  they 
have  no  military  value.  6.  Find  the  Bois  de  Boulogne.  "  Bois  " 
is  the  French  word  for  forest.  The  Bois  de  Boulogne  (Forest 
of  Boulogne)  is  a  beautiful  wooded  park.  Among  the  Parisians 
it  is  a  favorite  spot  for  walking,  driving,  and  horseback  riding. 


Bordeaux  is  another  city  at  the  head  of  an  estuary.  In 
addition  to  being  a  port  for  the  shipment  of  wine  it  is 
an  important  manufacturing  center. 

Lyon  has  been  referred  to  as  a  leading  city  in  the 
manufacture  of  silk ;  it  is  one  of  the  important  cities 
on  the  Rhone.  At  the  mouth  of  this  river  is  Marseille, 
one  of  the  largest  ports  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  an 
ancient  city  which  has  grown  so  rapidly  of  late  years 
that  its  harbor  facilities  have  been  greatly  increased  to 


Fig.  371.  This  is  an  aeroplane  drawing  of  Paris  and  its  surroundings.  The 
numbers  indicate  the  location  of  the  following  places  of  interest :  1,  Mont- 
martre ;  2,  Arc  de  Triomphe ;  3,  Avenue  des  Champs  Elysees ;  4,  Eiffel  Tower ; 
5,  Champ-de-Mars ;  6,  Place  de  la  Concorde;  7,  Palais  des  Tuileries;  8,  Louvre; 
9,  Palais  du  Luxembourg  ;  10,  Notre  Dame ;  11,  Jardindes  Plantes;  12,  Place 

Rouen,  below  Paris  on  the  river  Seine,  is  a  center  for 
cotton-manufacturing.  The  largest  ocean  steamers  ascend 
the  river  to  this  point.  At  the  mouth  of  the  estuary  is 
Havre,  the  "  haven,"  or  port,  of  Paris.  Here  there  are 
over  eight  miles  of  quays,  and  a  flourishing  trade  is 
carried  on  with  the  chief  seaports  of  the  world. 

Along  the  Loire,  which  is  the  longest  river  in  France, 
Orleans,  Tours,  and  Nantes  are  located.  Nantes  is  at  the 
head  of  the  estuary  of  the  Loire  and  serves  as  a  seaport. 
Orleans  and  Tours  are  small  manufacturing  cities. 

On  the  banks  of  the  Garonne  are  Toulouse  and  Bor- 
deaux. Toulouse  is  in  the  midst  of  good  farming  country. 
It  is  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 


©  Gina  and  Coropin; 

de  la  Bastille.  The  first  settlement  of  Paris  was  made  on  the  island  in  the 
Seine  where  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  now  stands.  Notice  the  wall 
which  surrounds  the  city.  It  was  built  many  years  ago  in  the  days  when 
cities  were  walled  for  safety  against  the  attack  of  enemies.  It  is  now  being 
torn  down,  and  in  the  future  its  site  will  be  marked  only  by  a  boulevard 

accommodate  the  vessels  which  come  there  (Fig.  370). 
Grenoble,  the  largest  city  in  the  French  Alps,  is  an 
industrial  center  and  the  market  for  the  gloves  manu- 
factured in  many  of  the  neighboring  villages. 

East  of  Marseille,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  is  Toulon. 
The  coast  beyond  there  is  commonly  known  as  the  Riviera; 
it  is  a  region  of  great  beauty,  with  a  delightful  winter 
climate.  The  city  of  Nice  is  a  noted  health  resort  on  the 
Mediterranean  coast  (Fig.  373).  At  Grasse  a  large  part 
of  all  the  flower  perfumery  used  in  the  world  is  made. 
On  the  hillsides  roses  and  other  flowers  are  raised,  and 
the  perfumery  is  made  from  the  oil  which  is  pressed 
from  the  blossoms. 


186 


FRANCE 


Fig.  372.    Strasbourg  is  the  chief  city  of  Alsace,  one  of  the  provinces  lost 

by  France  in  a  war  with  Germany  many  years  ago,  and  restored  to  France 

at  the  end  of  the  World  War  in  1918.  This  view  shows  one  of  the  public 

squares  in  Strasbourg.   In  what  lowland  is  the  city  located  ? 

Colonial  possessions.  Like  most  of  the  countries  of 
western  Europe,  France  has  sent  expeditions  to  various 
parts  of  the  world  and  helped  to  colonize  distant  lands. 
In  Africa  her  possessions  include  Algeria,  Tunis,  the 
protectorate  of  Morocco,  a  large  part  of  the  Sahara,  the 
Sudan,  and  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  coast,  part  of  Somaliland, 
and  the  islands  of  Madagascar  and  Reunion.  France 
also  controls  French  Indo-China,  five  cities  in  India, 
and  French  Guiana  in  South  America.  The  islands  of 
St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  off  the  shore  of  Newfoundland, 
a  few  small  islands  in  the  West  Indies,  and  a  few  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean  also  belong  to  France.  Several  of  the 
colonies  send  representatives  to  the  French  parliament, 
and  Algeria  is  treated  in  many  ways  as  a  part  of  France. 


The  colonies  furnish  markets  to  which  the  manufac- 
tured goods  from  the  French  factories  can  be  sent,  and 
in  return  the  French  receive  large  quantities  of  raw 
material  and  certain  tropical  foods  which  they  cannot 
raise  in  their  own  country. 

Home  work.  1.  On  an  outline  map  of  the  world,  color  in  the 
colonial  possessions  of  France.  2.  Mark  the  chief  lines  of  travel  be- 
tween these  colonies  and  the  home  country.  See  Appendix,  Plate  B. 

The  Sarre  Basin  is  a  small  area  lying  in  the  valley  of 
the  Sarre  River.  It  is  very  important  because,  of  the 
rich  beds  of  coal  which  it  contains,  and  before  tne  ' 
World  War  it- belonged  to  Germany.  France  now  owns 
the  coal  supply,  but  in  1934  the  people  of  the  area  will 
decide  by  vote  whether  it  shall  be  under  the  political 
control  of  France  or  Germany.  At  present  it  is  governed 
by  a  commission  appointed  by  the  League  of  Nations. 

Government.  France  is  organized  as  a  republic.  The 
chief  executive  is  the  president,  who  is  elected  for  seven 
years.  The  legislative  power  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
Chamber  of  Deputies  and  a  Senate. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  natural  regions  of 
Europe  extend  into  France  ?  2.  What  advantage  is  it  to  the  coun- 
try to  have  the  highlands  and  mountains  in  the  east  rather  than 
in  the  west  ?  3.  In  what  part  of  France  are  the  chief  coal  fields  ? 
4.  In  what  part  is  the  water-power  most  abundant  ? 

5.  On  what  seas  does  France  border  ?  6.  Why  should  farming 
be  one  of  the  chief  occupations  of  the  French  people  ?  7.  In  what 
parts  of  France  are  the  growing  of  grapes  and  the  manufacture 
of  wine  especially  important  ?  8.  From  what  port  is  much  of 
the  wine  shipped  ? 

9.  Of  what  advantage  to  France  is  a  Mediterranean  seaport  ? 
10.  Name  five  large  cities  in  France  and  explain  the  location  and 
growth  of  each.  11.  Explain  why  so  many  of  the  larger  cities  are 
on  the  rivers.  12.  In  which  continent  are  most  of  the  colonial  pos- 
sessions of  France  located  ?   13.  Of  what  value  are  they  to  France  ? 


Courtesy  ol  Williams,  Bic 


Fig.  373.  This  is  a  view  of  the  harbor  of  Nice  on  the  Riviera  coast  of  France. 
Besides  being  a  popular  health  resort  Nice  is  also  a  port  of  some  importance. 
Here  on  the  wharf  are  barrels  of  olive  oil  and  wine  ready  to  be  shipped  away. 
Many  people  from  northern  Europe  go  to  Nice  each  winter  to  enjoy  the  mild 


climate  and  the  clear  blue  skies,  just  as  people  from  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
United  States  like  to  spend  their  winters  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. Locate  Nice  on  the  map  between  pages  181  and  184.  Can  you  explain 
the  mildness  of  the  climate  in  the  winter  months  on  this  Riviera  coast? 


SWITZERLAND 


187 


Fig.  374.  This  is  a  view  among  the  high  summits  of  the  Alps,  where  there  is  snow 
throughout  the  entire  year.  Can  you  explain  why  the  snow  does  not  melt  here  in  summer  ? 
Are  the  Alps  old,  worn-down  mountains  or  young,  rugged  mountains  ?  What  other  moun- 
tains of  Europe  are  of  the  same  type  as  the  Alps  ?  What  is  the  highest  peak  in  the  Alps  ? 


SWITZERLAND 

In  the  high  mountains  east  of  France  and  south  of 
Germany,  among  most  beautiful  surroundings,  live  the 
Swiss,  a  strong,  brave, 
liberty-loving  people. 
Their  land  is  with- 
out large  mineral  re- 
sources, without  broad 
fields  for  agriculture, 
and  without  any  coast 
line;  yet  Switzerland 
has  become  one  of  the 
most  prosperous  of  the 
small  nations.  Because 
of  the  wonderful  moun- 
tain scenery  afforded 
by  the  Alps,  Switzer- 
land is  probably  vis- 
ited by  more  travelers 
fromforeignlands  than 
any  other  country  in 
the  world. 

Physical  features.  The  Jura  mountains  extend  into 
the  northwestern  part  of  Switzerland,  and  in  the  south- 
east are  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Alps.  Between  these  two 
mountain  ranges  there  is  a  narrow  plateau  belt  where 
there  are  many  hills  and  many  beautiful  lakes  (Fig.  375). 

The  Alps  rise  to  elevations  of  from  10,000  to  15,000  feet 
above  sea  level.  Among  their  summits  snow  remains 
throughout  the  year,  and  little 
by  little  the  snow-fields  become 
so  thick  that  ice  forms  at  the 
bottom  and  moves  down  the 
valleys  as  glaciers  (Fig.  37-4). 
These  Alpine  glaciers  freeze  about 
the  stones  and  loose  material  be- 
neath them  on  the  canyon  floors, 
and  shod  with  such  sharp  tools 
they  deepen  the  canyons  and 
gouge  out  great  basins  as  they 
move  forward.  Stones  and  soil 
rattle  down  the  mountains  and 
come  to  rest  on  the  top  of  the  ice. 
When  northwestern  Europe  was 
covered  by  a  great  ice-sheet,  the 
glaciers  in  Switzerland  were  much 
longer  than  they  now  are.  They 
extended  through  the  canyons 
in  the  mountains  to  the  plateau 
country  northwest  of  the  Alps 
and  southward  beyond  Switzer- 
land to  the  plain  of  northern  Italy. 


Fig.  375.   Lake  Geneva  is  one  of  the  several  beautiful  lakes 

which  occupy  the  plateau  between  the  Alps  and  the  Jura 

Mountains.  This  view  was  taken  from  the  hill  overlooking 

Montreux,  a  city  located  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  lake 


At  the  same  time  that  the  continental  ice-sheet  melted 
away,  the  mountain  glaciers  became  shorter.  They  left 
sand,  gravel,  and  bowlders  strewn  on  the  surface  where 

they  had  rested.  Some 
of  this  material  blocked 
the  drainage  and  thus 
formed  beautiful  lakes 
high  in  the  mountains 
(Fig.  375).  A  number 
of  the  rock  basins 
which  were  gouged  out 
by  glaciers  also  contain 
lakes.  Almost  all  of 
the  soil  of  Switzerland 
is  of  glacial  origin. 

Climate.  Because  of 
the  altitude  of  Switzer- 
land there  are  heavy 
rains  and  heavy  snow- 
falls and  no  very  warm 
weather.  The  slopes 
that  face  to  the  south 
are  much  warmer  than  those  that  face  to  the  north.  The 
summer  climate  attracts  many  visitors  who  are  looking 
for  a  cool  region,  wThile  the  winter  climate  calls  those  who 
enjoy  the  brisk,  cold  air  and  the  skating,  tobogganing, 
and  skiing. 

Natural  resources  and  occupations.  There  is  not  much 
agricultural  land  in  Switzerland,  but  the  small  areas 

that  are  suitable  for  agriculture 
are  cultivated  intensively.  The 
steep,  sunny  hillsides  are  terraced 
and  used  for  raising  grapes.  Many 
of  the  Swiss  people  have  taken  up 
dairying,  and  each  summer  they 
send  their  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats 
high  into  the  mountains  in  order 
to  save  the  grass  which  grows  in 
the  valleys  for  hay  (Fig.  376). 
The  young  boys  of  the  family 
often  go  with  the  stock  to  these 
high  pastures,  called  alps,  and 
remain  there  until  fall,  caring 
for  the  animals  and  making  the 
butter  and  cheese  (Fig.  379).  The 
flocks  and  herds  are  brought  to 
the  lower  lands  for  the  winter, 
and  the  return  to  the  home  is 
accompanied  by  great  rejoicing. 
It  is  a  festival  time,  when  friend- 
ships are  renewed  after  a  long 
period  of  separation. 


188 


SWITZERLAND 


Donald  McLeish,  London 


Fig.  376.    This  Swiss  farmer  is  hauling  home  a  Fig.  377.   The  Swiss  wood-carvers  are  very  skill- 
load  of  hay  which  he  has  cut  in  one  of  the  moun-  ful.  This  man  is  carving  little  models  of  animals 
tain  valleys.    The  hay  will  be  used  to  feed  his  from  solid  blocks  of  wood.   Why  have  the  Swiss 
cattle  during  the  winter  months  developed  so  many  home  industries  ? 


Fig.  378.  Here  is  a  Swiss  peasant  with  his  alpen- 

horn.   Years  ago  these  great  horns  were  blown  to 

sound  the  charge  in  battle,  but  now  they  are  used 

to  call  the  cattle  from  the  pastures 


Besides  the  butter  and  cheese  made  from  the  milk  of  or  trails.  Hotels  and  resting  places  have  been  built  high 

the  cows  and  goats  the  Swiss  people  produce  large  quan-  among  the  mountains,  and  every  arrangement  is  made 

tities  of  condensed  milk  and  manufacture  milk  chocolate  for  the  comfort  of  the  traveler.    Special  guides  are  sup- 

for  export.   The  skins  of  the  goats  and  kids  are  used  in  plied  to  those  who  wish  to  cross  the  glaciers  or  climb 

the  manufacture  of  gloves.  the  high  peaks. 

Coal  is  not  found  in  Switzerland,  but  the  forests  yield         Government.    The  Swiss  have  a  republican  form  of 

abundant  fuel  and  also  huge  logs  for  timber  and  for  government,  and  each  of   the  twenty  Swiss  cantons, 

building  homes  (Fig.  380).  Most  of  the  forests  are  na-  which  are  political  divisions  somewhat  like  our  states, 

tional  reserves,   controlled  by  the  government  as  the  sends  representatives  to  the  national  congress.    Switzer- 


national  forests  in  the  United  States  are.  The  plentiful 
supply  of  hard  woods  has  led  many  of  the  people  to  take 
up  the  art  of  wood-carving,  for  which  they  have  ample 
time  during  the  cold  winter  months  (Fig.  377). 


land  is  one  of  the  oldest  republics  in  the  world. 

Cities.  Bern,  the  capital,,  has  a  picturesque  location 
on  a  bluff,  about  the  base  of  which  flows  the  river  Aar. 
Its  old  fortifications  have  been  transformed  into  prome- 


Water-power  is  abundant,  and  Switzerland  has  long  nades,  which  command  wonderful  views  of  the  snowy 
been  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  small,  light  articles  Alps.  Zurich  is  the  largest  city  and  an  important  rail- 
which  can  be  easily  transported,  such  as  jewelry,  lace,     road  center,  where  connections  are  made  for  France, 


toys,  watches,  and  clocks.  The  water- 
power  is  now  transformed  into  elec- 
tricity and  used  in  cotton  and  silk 
mills. 

The  Swiss  have  undertaken  another 
remarkably  profitable  industry  in 
which  they  use  electricity.  They  have 
learned  to  take  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  make  a  fertilizer  which  is 
sold  to  the  neighboring  agricultural 
peoples  in  large  quantities.  This  was 
very  clever  of  the  Swiss  people,  for 
there  is  plenty  of  air,  and  plenty  of 
power,  and  plenty  of  limestone,  which 
is  used  in  making  this  fertilizer. 
Other  people  also  make  a  fertilizer 
in  this  way. 

The  caring  for  travelers  gives  occu- 
pation to  many  of  the  inhabitants. 
Where  travel  was  at  first  very  difficult 
the  Swiss  have  built  excellent  roads 


Donald  McLeish,  London 


Fig.  379.  Here  are  some  of  the  Swiss  dairy  catUe 
grazing  over  an  upland  pasture.  At  what  season 
of  the  year  do  you  think  this  picture  was  taken? 
Why  has  dairying  become  an  important  Swiss 
industry  ? 


Austria,  and  Germany,  and  by  way  of 
the  St.  Gotthard  tunnel  for  Italy.  It 
is  also  a  center  for  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  and  silk  and  of  textile  and 
electrical  machinery.  Basel  is  the 
second  largest  Swiss  city.  Its  ribbon 
manufacture  is  important.  Merchan- 
dise from  all  parts  of  central  and 
northern  Europe  is  brought  here  for 
shipment  over  the  St.  Gotthard  rail- 
way to  Italy  and  to  the  Balkan  States. 
Geneva,  beautifully  located  at  the 
lower  end  of  Lake  Geneva  and  near 
the  point  where  the  RhSne  enters 
France,  is  an  educational  and  indus- 
trial center.  Jewelry  and  scientific  in- 
struments are  manufactured  here  on 
a  large  scale.  Geneva  has  long  been 
famous  for  its  watches  and  clocks. 
Formerly  these  were  made  by  hand, 
but  now  they  are  made  by  machinery. 


GERMANY 


189 


Problems  and  review  questions. 
1.  What  countries  border  Switzer- 
land ?  2.  Name  two  rivers  of  com- 
mercial importance  that  rise  in  the 
Alps  of  Switzerland.  3.  What  dis- 
advantages do  the  Swiss  people 
have  to  contend  with  ?  4.  What 
is  the  local  supply  of  fuel  in  this 
country  ? 

5.  Why  should  water-power  be 
so  abundant  in  this  country  ? 
6.  Why  have  the  Swiss  people 
engaged  in  manufacturing  small, 
light  articles  ?  7.  Tell  something 
of  interest  about  each  of  the  four 
leading  cities  of  Switzerland. 

8.  How  do  the  many  visitors 
to  Switzerland  help  the  country  ? 
9.  What  advantages  would  there 
be  in  visiting  this  country  during 
winter  ?  during  summer  ?  10.  What 
do  you  suppose  the  children  of 
Switzerland  do  for  recreation? 


3  Exclusive  News  Agencjr,  Koetiampum 

Fig.  380.  The  streams  that  tumble  down  the  mountain  sides  in 
Switzerland  provide  a  large  amount  of  water-power.  The  waterfall  in 
this  view  is  being  used  to  run  a  small  sawmill,  where  the  logs  which 
are  cut  on  the  mountain  slopes  are  sawed  into  boards.  For  what  other 
purposes  is  the  water-power  used  in  Switzerland  ? 


Home  work.  1.  Read  the  story  of  William  Tell.  2.  Look  up  the 
names  and  descriptions  of  the  great  tunnels  through  the  Alps. 

GERMANY 

Natural  regions.  Germany  includes  parts  of  four  natu- 
ral regions :  (1)  a  broad  stretch  of  the  Central  Plains  of 
Europe,  which  is  here  often  called  the  Plain  of  North 
Germany ;  (2)  a  large  portion  of  the  Central  Highlands, 
where  there  are  many  old,  worn-down  mountain  ranges  ; 
(3)  some  of  the  rich  Middle  Rhine  Plain  ;  and  (4)  a  small 
portion  of  the  northern  slope  of  the  Alps.  The  coast  line 
is  low  and  sandy  and  offshore  the  waters  are  shallow. 


Waterways.  Germany  is 
fortunate  in  having  access  to 
the  North  and  Baltic  seas 
and  in  having  a  remarkable 
system  of  inland  waterways. 
The  Rhine  rises  in  the  Alps, 
flows  through  the  fertile  low- 
land of  its  middle  course  and 
the  beautiful  gorge  in  the 
Central  Highlands,  and  then 
crosses  the  open  lowlands  of 
western  Germany. 

The  Weser,  Elbe,  and  Oder 
rise  in  the  Central  Highlands 
and  flow  northward  across 
the  lowland  plain  of  Germany. 
The  first  two  flow  into  the 
North  Sea,  but  the  Oder 
reaches  the  Baltic.  Each  of 
these  three  rivers  has  a  broad 
estuary,  or  drowned  mouth,  which  has  made  it  possible 
for  ocean-going  vessels  to  go  far  inland.  The  cities  of 
Bremen,  Hamburg  (Fig.  381),  and  Stettin,  at  the  heads 
of  these  estuaries,  while  enjoying  all  the  advantages 
of  inland  positions,  are  thus  important  seaports. 

There  are  1500  miles  of  canals  in  Germany  (see  map 
between  pages  181  and  184),  and  with  the  rivers  they 
make  a  network  of  water  routes  that  furnish  a  cheap 
means  of  transportation  throughout  the  lowland  country. 
From  the  Rhine  a  boat  may  pass  by  means  of  canals 
into  the  Danube.  From  the  Elbe  it  is  possible  for  a 
boat  to  pass  to  the  Vistula,  and  then  to  the  Black  Sea. 


Fig.  381.  This  is  a  view  along  one  of  the  canals  in  Hamburg,  the  second 
city  and  chief  port  of  Germany.  Locate  Hamburg  on  the  map  on  page  171. 
How  has  its  location  led  to  its  development  as  a  great  commercial  city  ? 
What  landlocked  nation  of  central  Europe  may  use  Hamburg  as  a  seaport  ? 


Fig.  382.  This  is  Humboldt's  Harbor  in  Berlin.  This  harbor  is  part  of  the 
extensive  canal  system  which  connects  Berlin  with  the  Oder  and  Elbe  rivers. 
Locate  Berlin  on  the  map  between  pages  181  and  184.  In  what  natural  region 
is  it  situated  ?  How  is  its  location  advantageous  for  trade  and  transportation  ? 


190 


GERMANY 


— . ■  ■ .  ■  j — r — 


Courteijr  of  WUli&ma,  lironu,  Mid  £arle 

Fig.  383.  This  is  a  view  of  the  Rhine  near  Bonn.  Notice  the  terraced  hillsides  and  the  location 
of  the  city  on  the  narrow  strip  of  low,  flat  land  immediately  bordering  the  river.  The  Rhine  is 
a  very  important  commercial  highway,  and  small  vessels  ascend  the  river  as  far  as  Strasbourg. 
From  Strasbourg  the  Rhone-Rhine  Canal  connects  the  Rhine  with  the  Saone-Rhone  waterway 
to  Marseille.    Trace  this  water  route  between  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Rhone  on  the 

map  between  pages  181  and  184 


~ !_ 


Lowland  plain.  This  is  the  most  exten- 
sive agricultural  region  of  Germany.  It  is 
covered  with  glacial  material  left  by  the 
ice-sheet.  These  glacial  deposits,  especially 
in  eastern  Germany,  are  in  places  very 
sandy,  but  even  in  these  light  soils  pota- 
toes, sugar  beets,  and  rye  are  important 
crops.  Germany  has  been  the  greatest  pro- 
ducer of  sugar  beets  in  the  world.  Along 
the  shores  of  the  Baltic  flax  and  hemp 
are  raised. 

In  the  region  bordering  Denmark  the 
lowlands  of  Germany  are  favorable  to  the 
grazing  of  cattle,  and  here  dairy  farming 
is  an  important  occupation.  In  the  north- 
east German  lowlands  large  numbers  of 
Internationalized  waterways.  In  1919,  by  the  terms  sheep  and  goats  are  raised.  In  places  the  sands  of  the 
of  the  peace  treaty  that  closed  the  World  War,  certain  lowlands  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass. 
navigable  rivers  that  could  be  used  by  several  nations  Central  Highlands.  These  highlands  consist  of  very 
were  internationalized,  or  declared  open  and  free  for  the  old  rocks,  which  contain  rich  mineral  deposits.  It  is 
use  of  all  nations  on  equal  terms.  This  arrangement  the  resources  found  in  the  ground,  such  as  coal,  iron, 
was  made  so  as  to  give  the  countries  in  the  interior  of  zinc,  lead,  copper,  and  potash,  which  have  had  the  most 
Europe  an  easy  means  of  shipping  goods  by  water  and  profound  influence  upon  the  development  of  Germany 
engaging  in  foreign  trade.  Those  people  now  have  the  during  the  last  fifty  years.  The  coal  and  iron  ore  are 
right  to  use  these  rivers  just  as  much  as  if  they  flowed  usually  found  together ;  this  fact  has  helped  the  growth 
entirely  through  their  own  lands.  of  great  iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

The  Rhine  is  internationalized  as  far  as  it  is  navigable,  As  the  resources  were  discovered  and  men  invented 
and  is  a  great  highway  of  trade  (Fig.  383).  The  Elbe  is  machinery  western  Germany  rapidly  became  one  of  the 
internationalized  upstream  to  its  junction  with  the  Mol-  leading  industrial  districts  of  the  world  (Fig.  385).  The 
dau  River,  on  which  Prague,  the  capital  of  Czechoslovakia,  manufacture  of  all  forms  of  cutlery,  hardware,  and 
is  located.  The  Oder  is  internationalized  to  the  mouth  of  machinery  was  actively  promoted.  Textile  industries 
the  Oppa.  In  the  south  the  Danube  is  internationalized  expanded  as  machinery  was  invented,  and  now  large 
as  far  as  Ulm.  The  peace  treaty  also  requires  that  the  quantities  of  raw  cotton,  wool,  and  silk  are  brought 
Kiel  Canal  and  its  approaches  shall  be  maintained  free  up  the  German  rivers  to  the  manufacturing  centers. 
and  open  to  vessels  of  all  nations  at  peace  with  Germany, 
on  equal  terms  (Fig.  384).  At  Hamburg  and  at  Stettin 
free  zones  have  been  established  and  leased  to  Czecho- 
slovakia so  that  this  inland  state  may  have  some  of 
the  advantages  of  these  seaports. 

Climate.  The  rainfall  throughout  Germany  is  suffi- 
cient for  agriculture,  but  there  is  more  rain  in  the  west- 
ern part  than  in  the  east.  Because  of  their  elevation  the 
higher  lands  in  the  south  have  about  the  same  tempera- 
ture as  the  lowlands  in  the  north.  North  Sea  ports  are 
open  all  the  year,  but  the  bays  and  inlets  of  the  Baltic 
and  the  estuaries  of  the  rivers  which  flow  into  the  Baltic 
are  frozen  during  a  part  of  the  winter.  That  is  because  the 
Baltic  Sea  is  shallower,  less  salty,  and  much  more  nearly 
inclosed  by  land  than  the  North  Sea. 

We  may  now  consider  the 'resources  in  each  of  the 
natural  regions  of  Germany,  and  see  what  effect  they 
have  had  on  the  occupations  of  the  people. 


Fig.  384.   The  harbor  at  Kiel  forms  the  eastern  entrance  to  the  Kiel  Canal, 

which  connects  the  Baltic  and  North  seas.   See  map  on  page  171,  M  4.  The 

canal  is  sixty-one  miles  long  and  is  deep  enough  to  allow  the  passage  of 

good-sized  ocean  vessels.  To  what  nations  is  it  of  the  greatest  use  ? 


m     , 

-km  *  I'm 

■Vjjj 

-•-  Si$y».j*-W, 

_~  --s 

Jt£'& 

--'        ^aSl 

i    "•*"-'       '*Ss 

ySSFasi 

E»mS 

jJBt***""'  "*"** 

GERMANY 


191 


Deposits  of  excellent  clay  have  been  found,  which  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  china  and  porcelain.  Potash  is  also 
obtained  in  the  highland  region.  It  is  used  in  making 
fertilizers,  and  thus  has  helped  to  promote  agriculture. 
The  forests  in  the  region  of  the  Central  Highlands 
have  long  received  scientific  care.  The  supply  of  timber 
has  led  to  lumbering  and  the  manufacture  of  paper, 
woodenware,  and  toys.  On  the  plateau  north  of  the 
Alps  many  excellent  cattle  are  raised.  Farming  is  also 
a  profitable  occupation  of  the  people  here    (Fig.  386). 


Fig.  385.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  Germany  has  many  great  industrial  cities 
where  manufacturing  is  carried  on  upon  a  large  scale,  many  of  the  people 
are  still  engaged  in  home  industries.  The  members  of  the  family  in  this 
picture,  who  live  on  the  edge  of  the  Black  Forest,  earn  their  living  by 
making  rug-beaters  from  rattan 

The  Danube,  which  rises  in  the  Black  Forest  only  a 
few  miles  from  the  Rhine,  flows  through  this  highland 
region,  receiving  several  large  tributaries  from  the  south. 
At  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Danube  is  the  old 
town  of  Ulm,  where  there  is  a  beautiful  cathedral  and 
many  buildings  of  historic  interest.  Munich  is  located  on 
one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Danube  not  far  from  the 
north  base  of  the  magnificent  Alpine  Range.  It  is  in  the 
midst  of  a  forested  region,  where  the  lower  slopes  are 
used  as  pasture  lands.   It  is  an  important  railway  center. 

The  Rhine  flows  through  the  Central  Highlands  in  a 
picturesque  gorge.  Koblenz,  a  very  busy  river  port  and 
manufacturing  city,  is  located  in  this  gorge  at  the  point 
where  the  Moselle  joins  the  Rhine  (Fig.  387).  Cologne  is 
near  the  place  where  the  Rhine  leaves  the  gorge  in  the 
highlands  and  enters  the  lowland  plain  of  Germany. 

Middle  Rhine  Plain.  The  Rhine  receives  its  headwaters 
from  the  melting  snows  of  the  Alps,  and  turning  north- 
ward from  Basel  flows  into  a  fertile  valley  from  20  to 
25  miles  wide.  To  the  west  are  the  Vosges  Mountains, 
and  to  the  east  the  Black  Forest.  This  lowland  portion 
of  the  middle  Rhine  is  a  valley  bordered  by  two  great 


Fig.  386.  These  high-roofed  houses  are  the  homes  of  German  farmers  who 
raise  hops  in  the  hop  district  southwest  of  the  Bohmer  Wald.  The  lower 
stories  are  the  living  quarters  of  the  families.  The  floors  above  are  used  for 
drying  the  hops  after  they  have  been  picked  and  brought  in  from  the  fields 

cliffs.  It  was  formed  in  the  same  way  as  the  lowland 
of  Scotland,  that  is,  by  the  sinking  of  the  land  between 
the  two  bordering  highlands.  The  part  of  this  plain 
that  is  east  of  the  river  belongs  to  Germany,  and  it  is  the 
best  agricultural  land  in  the  country.  Cereals,  hops,  and 
tobacco  are  the  principal  crops,  but  almost  any  crop 
that  can  thrive  in  a  temperate  climate  can  be  grown 
here.  The  winters  are  cold,  but  the  summers  are  hot 
and  the  autumns  are  dry  and  warm.  Fruit  is  grown, 
and  the  sunny  southern  slopes  of  the  hills  are  terraced 
for  grapevines. 

Freiburg,  on  the  eastern  margin  of  this  plain,  is  situ- 
ated at  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  beautiful  valleys  of 
the  Black  Forest.  It  is  a  university  town  with  a  beau- 
tiful cathedral.    Karlsruhe  is  a  manufacturing  center; 


Underwood  &  Underwood 


Fig.  387.   This  is  a  view  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Moselle  River,  where  it 

flows  through  the  region  of  the  Central  Highlands.  This  part  of  the  Moselle 

Valley  is  a  famous  grape-growing  district.    In  the  left  foreground  of  this 

view  you  can  see  some  of  the  vineyards  which  cover  the  hillsides 


192 


GERMANY 


Frankfort-on-the-Main  is  an  important  trading  and  bank- 
ing city  on  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine  (Fig.  389) ;  and  Mainz 
is  a  river  port  and  manufacturing  city. 

North  slope  of  the  Alps.  The  Austro-German  frontier 
extending  eastward  from  the  beautiful  lake  of  Constance 
lies  on  the  crest  of  the  Bavarian  Alps,  and  a  small  por- 
tion of  this  rugged  mountain  region  is  therefore  included 
in  Germany.  The  highest  summit  is  nearly  10,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  mountain  slopes  are  heavily  forested. 
Several  swift  streams,  tributary  to  the  Danube,  flow 
across  this  area  (Fig.  388). 

Cities.  In  this  country  it  will  be  most  interesting  to 
follow  each  one  of  the  large  rivers  and  thus  associate 
the  important  cities  with  the  main  drainage  lines  of 
the  country. 

If  we  start  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Oder  and  travel 
downstream,  the  first  large  city  we  reach  is  Breslau. 
Not  far  from  the  margin  of  the  highlands,  it  is  near  one 
of  the  important  coal  fields,  and  the  manufacture  of 
cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  fabrics  has  been  developed 
here.    Next  is  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  which  is  a  sugar- 


Fig.  389.  Frankfort-on-the-Main  is  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  another 
German  city  of  the  same  name,  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  This  view  shows 
the  river  Main  with  the  buildings  of  the  city  in  the  distance.  Locate  the 
two  cities  of  Frankfort  on  your  map.  What  is  the  chief  importance  of  each  ? 

industries  is  the  manufacture  of  the  famous  Dresden 
china.  Leipzig,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe,  is  a  center  for 
printing  and  publishing,  and  Halle,  a  little  below  Leipzig, 
is  an  important  university  town.  Magdeburg  is  another 
sugar-manufacturing  center.  At  the  head  of  the  estuary 


of  the  Elbe  is  Hamburg,  the  leading  port  in  northern 
manufacturing  city  in  the  center  of  a  great  sugar-beet  Europe  (Fig.  381).  Hamburg  is  connected  by  canals  with 
district.    At  the  head  of  the  estuary  is  Stettin,  also  a     ports  on  the  Baltic  Sea.    The  Elbe  is  the  most  impor- 


manufacturing  center,  where  many  of  the  largest  ocean 
liners  have  been  built. 

The  Elbe  rises  in  Czechoslovakia  and  flows  northward 
through  a  magnificent  gorge  in  the  old  mountains  bor- 
dering the  Bohemian  Plateau,  and  then  passes  out  into 
the  Plain  of  North  Germany.  Dresden  is  located  a  little 
downstream  from  the  gorge.    It  is  a  beautiful  city  with 


tant  river  of  Germany,  because  it  is  the  outlet  for  so 
much  of  the  interior  country.  Near  its  headwaters  are 
several  of  the  mining  regions  on  the  northern  margin 
of  the  Central  Highlands.  The  products  from  eastern 
Germany  are  brought  by  means  of  the  canals  from  the 
valley  of  the  Oder  westward  to  the  Elbe. 

Berlin,  the  capital  of  Germany,  is  located  on  a  tribu- 


art  galleries  and   public  gardens.    Among  its  various     tary  of  the  Elbe.    This  is  a  city  of  imposing  buildings, 

broad  streets  and  promenades,  and 
beautiful  gardens.  Many  industries 
have  been  established  here,  and  manu- 
factured products  can  be  carried  by 
canals  to  the  Oder  and  thence  to 
Stettin  or  down  the  Elbe  to  Hamburg. 
The  railroads  of  Germany,  which  are 
owned  by  the  government,  radiate  in 
all  directions  from  Berlin,  and  this 
city  has  become  the  greatest  railroad 
center  of  the  country  (Fig.  382). 

Along  the  upper  course  of  the  Weser 
there  are  several  industrial  centers,  but 
the  city  of  greatest  importance  on  this 
river  is  Bremen.  This  is  another  city 
at  the  head  of  an  estuary ;  it  has  the 
advantage  of  being  within  easy  reach 
of  the  sea  and  yet  in  the  midst  of  an 

Fig.  388.    This  is  a  modern  castle  in  Germany,  located  in  the  beautiful  mountain  country  on  the  agricultural  district.     It  competes  with 

north  side  of  the  Alps     It  is  much  like  the  old  German  castles  which  were  built  at  a  time  when  H^Wf  and  the  ports  on  the  Rhine 
the  home  of  each  wealthy  nobleman  was  a  strong  fortress  as  well  as  a  dwelling-place.    There  are  °  r 

many  of  these  old  castles  in  Germany,  especially  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  country  for  the  trade  of  Western  Germany. 


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AUSTRIA 


193 


On  the  banks  of  the  Rhine  just  beyond  the  upland 
belt  is  Cologne,  a  city  with  the  largest  Gothic  cathedral 
in  Europe.  It  is  a  port  to  which  ocean  steamers  come, 
making  it  one  of  the  busiest  places  in  western  Germany. 
Essen  is  on  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine  which  rises  in  the 
highlands  and  flows  through  coal  and  iron  fields.  Essen 
has  become  an  important  center  of  the  iron  and  steel 
industry. 

East  Prussia  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  Germany 
by  a  narrow  strip  of  land  that  belongs  to  Poland,  but 
the  German  people  have  the  right  to  ship  goods  across 
this  Polish  territory.  Kbnigsberg  is  the  capital  and  sea- 
port of  East  Prussia. 

Government.  Before  the  World/War  Germany  was  organ- 
ized as  an  empire.  At  the  end  or  the  war  the  people  over- 
threw the  imperial  government  and  set  up  a  republican 
form  of  government.  The  people  now  elect  their  own 
representatives  and  control  the  affairs  of  the  nation. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1)  What  natural  regions  extend 
into  Germany  ?  2.  What  is  the  best  agricultural  portion  of  this 
country  ?  3.  Where  are  most  of  the  mineral  resources  ?  4.  Why 
do  the  North  Sea  ports  remain  open  and  the  Baltic  ports  remain 
frozen  during  the  winter  ? 

5.  Why  is  there  more  rainfall  in  western  than  in  eastern  Germany  ? 

6.  In  what  part  of  this  country  is  the  grapevine  commonly  grown  ? 

7.  Where  are  the  best  forests  of  Germany  ?  8.  What  natural 
resources  have  led  to  manufacturing?  9.  What  are  the  leading 
manufacturing  cities  of  Germany  ? 

10.  What  rivers  in  Germany  have  large  cities  near  their  mouths  ? 
11.  What  water  routes  connect  Berlin  with  the  sea  ?  12.  What 
rivers  have  been  internationalized  ?  Why  was  this  done  ?  13.  At 
what  seaports  have  the  people  of  Czechoslovakia  special  rights  ? 
14.  What  part  of  Germany  is  entirely  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  country  ?  15.  What  form  of  government  has  Germany  to-day  ? 


Fig.  390.   This  is  a  view  in  the  Austrian  Alps.   In  the  foreground  is  one  of 

the  great  glaciers  which  wind  their  way  down  the  valleys  between  the 

Alpine  peaks.    These  glaciers  move  very  slowly,  fed  by  the  snow  in  the 

mountains  and  always  melting  at  their  lower  ends 


Fig.  391.  These  are  the  government  buildings  at  Vienna,  where  the  laws  of 
the  nation  are  made.  Vienna  is  noted  for  the  beauty  of  its  buildings,  streets, 
and  parks.  Locate  Vienna  on  your  map.  What  advantages  can  you  see  in  its 
location  ?   What  other  national  capitals  are  situated  on  the  Danube  River  ? 

AUSTRIA 

Austria  is  a  small  country  in  central  Europe  without 
any  seacoast.  It  includes  a  portion  of  the  Alps  and 
a  portion  of  the  Central  Highlands  northeast  of  the 
Alps  (Fig.  390). 

On  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  there  are  forests, 
and  in  the  valley  bottoms,  especially  in  the  Central 
Highlands,  there  are  fertile  soils.  The  streams  from  the 
high  mountains  furnish  water-power,  and  there  are  mines 
that  supply  iron,  lead,  copper,  salt,  and  mercury. 

Lumbering,  grazing,  and  some  agriculture  are  carried 
on,  and  in  the  cities  there  are  many  industrial  plants. 

Vienna  is  the  capital  and  chief  city  (Fig.  391).  It  is 
beautifully  located  on  the  Danube  River  and  is  laid  out 
with  broad  avenues  that  are  planted  with  trees.  Just 
below  the  city  the  Alps  and  the  Little  Carpathians 
come  to  the  banks  of  the  river  and  form  a  narrow 
pass  known  as  the  Austrian  Gate. 

The  museums  in  Vienna  have  wonderfully  valuable 
art  and  natural-history  collections,  and  this  city  has  long 
been  one  of  the  leading  musical  centers  of  the  world. 

The  Danube  River  is  a  natural  highway  of  travel  from 
east  to  west,  and  the  railroad  routes  from  north  to  south, 
connecting  Berlin  with  the  Italian  and  Balkan  peninsulas, 
cross  the  river  where  Vienna  is  located.  The  crossing 
of  these  routes  of  travel  and  trade  has  led  to  the  growth 
of  Vienna  as  an  industrial  and  commercial  center. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  state  in  the  United 
States  is  about  as  large  as  Austria?  See  Appendix.  2.  What 
natural  regions  extend  into  this  country  ?  3.  What  are  the  chief 
natural  resources  of  Austria  ?  4.  What  navigable  river  may  be 
used  by  the  Austrian  people  in  trading  with  other  countries  ? 
5.  What  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people  ?  6.  What  are 
the  reasons  for  the  location  and  growth  of  Vienna  ?  7.  Where 
is  the  Austrian  Gate  ?    8.  Why  is  it  so  named  ? 


194 


HUNGARY 


i)  EicLiwite  News  Agencj,  Koehwnpi-n 

Fig.  392.  Budapest,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  is  divided  by  the  Danube  River 
into  two  cities,  Buda  and  Pest.  This  view  shows  one  of  the  bridges  which 
unite  the  two  cities.  Locate  Budapest  on  the  map  between  pages  181  and  184. 
How  should  you  describe  its  location  ?   What  advantages  for  trade  has  it  ? 

HUNGARY 

Physical  features.  Most  of  this  country  is  included 
in  the  lowland  called  the  Plain  of  Hungary.  This  low- 
land and  the  surrounding  mountains  form  a  basinlike 
area  within  which  the  streams  from  the  mountains  have 
spread  out  fine  materials  and  in  this  way  have  built  up 
a  very  fertile  land.  Hungary  is  a  country  without  a 
coast  line,  but  it  has  free  use  of  the  Danube  River. 

The  Danube  River  crosses  from  the  northwest  to  the 
southeast.  Just  upstream  from  Budapest  the  mountain 
ranges  come  close  to  the  river,  forming  in  the  valley  of 
the  Danube  a  narrow  pass  which  is  called  the  Hungarian 
Gate.  Farther  downstream,  where  the  Danube  flows 
through  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  is  another  narrow 
place  in  the  valley,  which  is  known  as  the  Iron  Gate. 


Fig.  393.  These  Hungarian  farmers  are  harvesting  hay  on  their  farm  in  the 

rich,  fertile  plain  of  the  Danube.  About  how  much  rainfall  does  this  plain 

receive  during  the  year  ?   See  map  on  page  216.  Why  is  it  so  favorable  for 

agriculture  ?  What  are  the  chief  products  grown  in  this  region  ? 


Climate.  In  the  mountains  that  surround  the  Plain  of 
Hungary  there  is  abundant  rainfall,  amounting  in  places 
to  80  inches  a  year ;  but  in  the  lowland  the  rainfall  is  un- 
certain, and  there  are  often  long  periods  of  dry  weather. 
The  rain  of  the  lowland  comes  chiefly  in  May  and  June, 
when  the  cereal  crops,  especially  wheat,  are  getting  a 
good  start.  The  latter  part  of  the  summer  is  dry,  and 
this  is  favorable  to  the  ripening  and  harvesting  of  the 
wheat.  Since  Hungary  is  far  from  the  sea,  there  are 
great  changes  in  temperature.  The  summers  are  warm 
and  the  winters  are  cold.  During  the  month  of  July  the 
range  of  temper- 
ature is  usually 
between  65°  F. 
and  70°  F.,  and 
in  January,  the 
coldest  month,  it 
is  from  22°  F.  to 
30°  F. 

Resources  and 
occupations.  The 
fertile  soil  of  the 
lowland  of  Hun- 
gary is  its  chief 
natural  resource. 
For  this  reason 
agriculture  has 
become  the  chief 
occupation  of  the 
people  (Fig.  393).  Corn  is  the  principal  crop  of  the  Plain 
of  Hungary,  and  large  quantities  of  excellent  wheat  and 
tobacco  are  grown.  Swine  are  raised  in  large  numbers, 
and  dairy-farming  and  the  raising  of  poultry  are  also 
important  occupations  of  the  people. 

In  the  east  and  south  there  are  extensive  grasslands 
that  have  encouraged  many  to  raise  cattle  and  sheep. 
The  forests  about  the  base  of  the  mountains  have  led 
to  lumbering. 

Budapest  is  the  capital  of  Hungary.  Buda  is  located 
on  the  high  western  bank  of  the  Danube  River,  and 
Pest  is  on  the  lowland  bordering  the  stream  on  the  east. 
The  two  cities  are  joined  by  bridges  (Figs.  392,  394). 
Budapest  is  located  at  the  margin  of  the  great  wheat- 
producing  district  and  has  naturally  become  the  center 
for  the  shipment  of  grain  and  the  manufacture  of  flour. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Why  should  farming  be  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  people  of  Hungary  ?  2.  Where  did  the 
fine  alluvial  soils  of  the  Plain  of  Hungary  come  from  ?  3.  Why 
has  the  lowland  a  light  rainfall  ?  4.  What  is  the  chief  crop  of  the 
lowland  ?  5.  What  other  products  are  raised  in  the  lowland  ? 
6.  What  can  you  tell  about  Budapest  ?  7.  What  internationalized 
river  may  be  used  for  commerce  by  the  people  of  Hungary  ? 
8.  Into  what  sea  does  it  flow  ? 


Fig.  394.  This  is  a  view  on  the  wharves  at  Buda- 
pest. In  the  foreground  is  a  Hungarian  woman 
selling  vegetables.  On  the  river  are  some  of  the 
boats  which  carry  passengers  and  freight  up  and 
down  the  Danube 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


195 


Fig.  395.   This  is  one  of  the  steel-manufacturing  centers  in  Czechoslovakia. 

This  country  is  very  fortunate  in  possessing  large  supplies  of  coal  and  iron, 

and  its  importance  as  an  industrial  nation  is  sure  to  increase  in  the  future. 

Locate  the  coal  and  iron  areas  on  the  map  between  pages  181  and  184 

CZECHOSLOVAKIA 

This  country  contains  about  50,000  square  miles,  and 
is  therefore  about  the  size  of  the  state  of  New  York.  It 
is  in  central  Europe  and  has  no  coast  line.  In  the  west 
are  the  mountains  and  plateau  of  Bohemia,  and  in  the 
east  is  a  portion  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 

Climate.  The  mountains  cause  variety  in  the  climate. 
The  temperature  varies  with  the  elevation.  The  distance 
from  the  sea  causes  considerable  change  in  temperature 
from  summer  to  winter.  In  the  mountain  areas  the 
rainfall  is  plentiful,  giving  rise  to  many  good  streams 
that  furnish  water-power. 

Resources  and  occupations.  Forests  cover  much  of  the 
mountain  slopes,  and  the  valley  and  plateau  lands  have 
fertile  soils  suitable  for  farming  and  grazing.  The  Bohe- 
mian district  contains  rich  stores  of  coal  and  iron  and 
large  supplies  of  high-grade  clays  that 
are  used  in  making  porcelain.  The  Car- 
pathian Mountains  are  also  rich  in  min- 
eral wealth.  Iron,  gold,  and  silver  are 
obtained  from  the  mines  in  this  range. 

The  natural  r:  purees  of  this  country 
have  led  to  lumbering  and  mining  in 
the  mountains,  to  farming  and  grazing 
in  the  areas  of  fertile  soils,  and  to  manu- 
facturing in  the  cities.  The  supplies  of 
iron  and  coal  are  used  in  the  making 
of  steel  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
machinery  (Fig.  395).  The  clays  near 
Karlsbad  have  made  possible  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  porcelain  industry  that  is 
known  throughout  the  civilized  world. 
Some  of  the  sandstones  of  Bohemia  are 


Fig.  396.   Briinn  is  the  second  largest  city  in  Czechoslovakia.    This  view 

shows  a  public  square  in  Briinn  on  market  day  when  the  farmers  of  the 

surrounding  agricultural  country  bring  their  products  to  the  city  to  sell  them. 

Locate  Briinn  on  your  map.   What  natural  advantages  has  this  city? 

ground  up  and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  glass ;  wood 
pulp  is  made  into  paper;  hides  and  skins  are  made 
into  leather ;  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Elbe,  where  there 
is  good  water-power,  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  goods 
are  made. 

Prague,  the  capital  of  Czechoslovakia,  is  situated  in 
the  most  productive  part  of  the  country.  It  has  become 
one  of  the  chief  industrial  and  trading  centers  in  central 
Europe  (Fig.  397).  Prague  is  on  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe 
River.  Czechoslovakia  has  free  use  of  the  Elbe,  Oder, 
and  Danube  rivers,  and  harbor  privileges  in  Hamburg, 
Stettin,  Trieste,  and  Fiume. 

Briinn  is  a  second  industrial  city.  Its  location  and 
growth  are  due  to  certain  rich  deposits  of  coal  and 
iron  that  have  helped  it  to  become  a  leading  city  in  the 
manufacture  of  agricultural  and  industrial  machinery. 


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Fig.  397.    This  is  a  view  of  part  of  the  city  of  Prague,  the  capital  of  Czechoslovakia.   Prague  is 

located  on  the  Moldau  River  and  is  a  busy  industrial  city.   Its  factories  include  paper  mills, 

machine  works,  sugar-refining  plants,  and  breweries.   Locate  Prague  on  the  map  between  pages 

181  and  184.   Why  has  Bohemia  developed  so  many  manufacturing  industries? 


196 


POLAND 


t  i  ilm  Service  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  398.   The  free  city  of  Danzig  is  located  on  the  Baltic  Sea  at  the  mouth 

of  the  Vistula  River,  and  is  the  chief  commercial  port  of  the  republic  of 

Poland.  This  is  a  view  along  the  water  front  at  Danzig.  Locate  Danzig  on 

your  map.  Why  is  this  port  the  natural  outlet  for  Poland  ? 

Pilsen,  in  the  rich  grain-growing  section  of  Czechoslo- 
vakia, is  famous  for  the  beer  brewed  from  the  barley 
and  hops  which  are  raised  chiefly  for  this  purpose.  Pilsen 
is  also  well  known  for  the  manufacture  of  glassware. 

This  country  is  organized  as  a  republic. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  are  the  chief  natural 
resources  of  Czechoslovakia?  2.  How  has  each  one  of  the  natu- 
ral resources  influenced  the  occupations  of  the  people  ?  3.  What 
internationalized  rivers  may  be  used  for  transportation  ?  4.  What 
ports  are  available  ?  5.  Name  and  give  the  location  of  the  capi- 
tal. 6.  Name  two  other  important  cities  and  state  the  leading 
industries  of  each  one.  7.  Will  this  country  become  chiefly 
agricultural  or  manufacturing  ?  Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 


POLAND 

This  country,  now  organized  as  a  republic,  is  located 
between  Germany  and  Russia  and  has  access  to  the  sea 
through  the  free  city  of  Danzig  (Fig.  398).  It  is  a  low- 
land area  included  within  the  Central  Plains  of  Europe. 
Much  of  the  land  is  marshy,  and  there  are  a  great  many 
lakes.    The  lakes  and  marshes  are  due  to  the  work  of  the 


Press  Illustrating  Service,  l&c. 

Fig.  399.  This  is  the  city  hall  at  Warsaw.  The  city  is  located  at  the  head 
of  navigation  for  steam  vessels  on  the  Vistula,  and  is  also  an  important 
railroad  center.  Locate  Warsaw  on  your  map.  How  far  is  Warsaw  from 
Danzig  by  water  ?  Why  has  Warsaw  become  an  important  commercial  and 

industrial  center  ? 


Fig.  400.  Many  years  ago  Poland  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  kingdoms  of 

Europe.   The  country  was  much  larger  than  it  is  now.  This  building,  which 

is  still  standing  in  Warsaw,  was  the  palace  of  one  of  the  kings  who  ruled 

Poland  more  than  two  centuries  ago.  How  is  Poland  governed  to-day  ? 

continental  ice-sheet  that  long  ago  invaded  this  region 
(Fig.  317).    Most  of  the  soils  here  are  of  glacial  origin. 

The  Memel,  or  Niemen,  River,  which  forms  a  part 
of  the  northeastern  boundary  of  Poland,  has  been  inter- 
nationalized as  far  upstream  as  Grodno.  This  river  is 
navigable  and  is  an  important  highway  for  the  transpor- 
tation of  farm  products.  The  Vistula  is  the  largest  and 
most  important  river  of  Poland. 

The  rainfall  is  enough  for  agriculture,  although  it  is 
less  than  the  amount  received  in  western  Germany. 

Resources  and  occupations.  The  soils  are  the  most 
valuable  of  the  natural  resources  of  Poland.  Most  of  the 
people  are  farmers,  and  large  crops  of  potatoes,  rye,  oats, 
wheat,  and  sugar  beets  are  raised.  Poultry-raising  and 
dairy-farming  are  also  important  occupations.  Many 
are  engaged  in  raising  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses. 

There  are  excellent  supplies  of  coal  in  southern  Poland, 
and  there  are  mines  that  produce  iron  and  others 
where  lead  and  zinc  are  obtained.  The  mineral  re- 
sources, especially  the  good  supply  of  fuel,  have  led 
to  manufacturing. 

Cities.  Warsaw,  the  capital  of  Poland,  is  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Vistula,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  broad,  fertile 
plain  (Figs.  399,  400).  There  are  coal  fields  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lodz,  and  both  Warsaw  and  Lodz  have  become  im- 
portant manufacturing  centers. 


BALTIC  STATES  AND  FINLAND 


197 


Krakow  is  the  leading  city  in  southern  Poland.  A  few 
miles  from  this  city  there  are  great  underground  caves 
in  salt.  Some  of  the  rooms  are  large  enough  to  use  for 
dance  halls.    Vilna  is  a  growing  industrial  center. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  In  what  natural  region  of 
Europe  is  Poland  located  ?  2.  What  is  the  explanation  of  the 
numerous  swamps  and  lakes  in  this  country  ?  3.  What  free  sea- 
port may  be  used  by  the  people  of  Poland  ?  Is  that  port  open  all 
winter  ?  4.  What  internationalized  river  is  available  ?  5.  What  is 
the  chief  river  of  Poland  ?  6.  What  are  the  leading  occupations 
of  the  people  ?    7.  Name  and  give  the  location  of  the  capital. 


Fig.  401.  Libau,  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  is  the  second  largest  port  of  the  Baltic 
States.  Its  harbor  is  free  from  ice  in  winter,  which  adds  greatly  to  its 
usefulness.  This  view  shows  part  of  the  harbor  of  Libau.  What  products 
have  the  Baltic  States  for  export  ?  What  do  they  need  to  import  in  return  ? 

BALTIC  STATES 

The  small  countries  of  Esthonia,  Latvia,  and  Lithu- 
ania are  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Baltic  Sea  south 
of  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  They  are  partly  forested,  and 
timber-cutting  is  therefore  one  of  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  inhabitants.  Some  of  the  land  is  used  for  grazing, 
and  dairy-farming  is  carried  on.  Many  of  the  people  are 
engaged  in  agriculture ;  flax  is  one  of  the  chief  crops. 

Riga,  the  capital  of  Latvia,  is  located  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Diina  River  and  is  the  chief  seaport  for  the  Baltic 
States  (Fig.  402).  The  exports  of  Riga  are  flax,  timber, 
and  dairy  products.  Coal  is  imported  from  England  and 
cotton  from  the  United  States.  Reval,  the  leading  city 
of  Esthonia,  is  also  an  important  seaport.  Kovno  is  the 
capital  of  Lithuania. 

FINLAND 

Finland  is  a  hilly  country,  and  among  the  hills  there 
are  thousands  of  lakes  and  marshes.  It  is  an  old,  worn- 
down  land  somewhat  like  New  England,  and  like  New 
England  it  has  been  invaded  by  great  ice-sheets.  There 
are  stony  soils,  and  on  the  surface  are  many  bowlders. 

The  winters  are  long  and  the  summers  are  short  and 
hot.  The  rainfall  is  about  10  inches  a  year  in  the  north 
and  about  25  inches  a  year  in  the  south. 


Fig.  402.   This  picture  shows  the  railroad  bridge  across  the  Diina  River  at 

Riga,  and  in  the  distance  the  buildings  of  the  city.    Notice  the  log  rafts 

under  the  bridge.   Nearly  one  third  of  the  area  of  Latvia  is  forested,  and 

each  year  thousands  of  logs  are  floated  down  the  rivers  to  the  ports 

Forests  cover  a  large  part  of  Finland,  and  they  have 
led  to  lumbering,  to  the  making  of  paper,  and  to  the 
manufacture  of  woodenware.  Quarrying  is  important, 
and  there  is  some.mining  of  copper  ;  many  of  the  people 
are  engaged  in  fishing  and  a  few  in  farming.  Most  of 
the  people  live  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country, 
near  the  Gulf  of  Finland  or  on  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia  (Fig.  403).  Helsingfors  is  the  capital  and  chief 
seaport. 

Finland  is  organized  as  a  republic. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  Where  are  the  small  Baltic 
States  located  ?  2.  What  is  the  chief  seaport  of  this  group  of 
countries  ?  Is  this  port  open  all  the  year  ?  3.  What  are  the  chief 
occupations  of  the  people  in  the  Baltic  States  ?  4.  Describe 
briefly  the  physical  features  of  Finland.  5.  What  disadvantages 
must  the  people  of  this  country  contend  with  ?  6.  What  are  the 
principal  resources  and  the  resulting  occupations  in  Finland? 


Underwood  It  Underwood 


Fig.  403.   This  is  one  of  the  locks  in  the  Saima  Canal  in  Finland.  The  canal 

connects  Lake  Saima  with  the  Gulf  of  Finland  at  Viborg,  making  it  possible 

for  the  people  of  the  interior  of  the  country  to  send  their  products  easily 

and  cheaply  to  the  coast.    Locate  Viborg  and  Lake  Saima  on  your  map 


198 


RUSSIA 


Fig.  404.    This  is  a  view  of  the  Volga  River  as  it  winds  across  the  level 

plain  of  Russia.  The  Volga  freezes  over  in  winter  and  becomes  very  shallow 

in  summer,  yet  it  is  an  important  commercial  highway.    On  the  map  on 

page  201  trace  the  route  by  water  from  Astrakhan  to  Petrograd 


RUSSIA 

Lowlands.  Most  of  Russia  is  in  the  vast  lowland  that 
stretches  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  from 
the  Ural  Mountains  to  the  Baltic  Sea.  Within  this  great 
lowland  there  are  a  few  hilly  places,  and  about  the  margins 
there  are  several  mountain  ranges.   See  map  on  page  201. 

Mountains.  The  Ural  Mountains  and  the  Timan 
Range,  in  the  northeast,  are  old  and  worn  down.  They 
are  like  the  Northwest  Highlands  in  being  the  stumps 
of  mountains  that  once  were  higher.  On  the  southern 
border  of  the  lowland,  between  the  Black  and  Caspian 
seas,  is  the  young  and  magnificent  range  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  lofty  peaks  of  the  Caucasus  rise  to  even  greater 
heights  than  the  summits  of  the  Alps,  and  there  are  longer 
glaciers  in  the  Caucasus  Mountains  than  in  the  Alps. 

Area  below  sea  level.  See  map  on  page  201.  The 
southeastern  part  of  Russia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Volga 
and  about  the  north  end  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  is  below 
sea  level.  It  is  a  part  of  a  former  sea  floor.  The  Caspian 
was  once  part  of  a  great  inland  sea  which  included  the 
Black  and  Mediterranean  seas  and  extended  northeast- 
ward over  the  lowlands  of  western  Siberia  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  Later  the  lands  rose  and  most  of  the  waters  of 
the  inland  sea  drained  off  into  the  ocean  basins,  leaving 
the  Caspian  Sea  without  an  outlet.  Since  that  time  the 
Caspian  Sea  has  been  slowly  drying  up.  As  its  waters 
have  evaporated,  more  and  more  of  its  sea  bottom, 
which  is  below  sea  level,  has  become  dry  land. 

Lakes.  The  numerous  lakes  in  the  northern  and 
western  portions  of  Russia  are  due  to  the  continental 
ice-sheet  which  formed  on  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula 
and  spread  until  it  covered  a  large  part  of  Russia.  The 
deposits  left  by  the  ice  have  formed  many  basins  where 


Fig.  405.    This  picture  was  taken  on  the  banks  of  the  Dvina  River  near 

Archangel  in  the  month  of  October.   Notice  the  snow  on  the  ground.   The 

harbor  of  Archangel  is  icebound  from  seven  to  nine  months  in  the  year. 

Locate  Archangel  on  the  map  on  page  201.   On  what  sea  is  it  ? 

rain  waters  have  collected,  and  in  many  places  streams 
have  been  blocked  so  that  lakes  have  been  formed. 

Rivers  and  canals.  Several  of  the  larger  streams  of 
Russia  are  navigable  and  of  very  great  value  as  trans- 
portation routes.  The  Volga,  the  longest  river  in  Europe, 
flows  into  the  Caspian  Sea  (Fig.  404).  The  Don  and  the 
Dnieper  reach  the  Black  Sea,  and  the  Dvina  flows 
northward  to  the  White  Sea.  Since  the  land  is  low, 
many  canals  have  been  made,  connecting  different  river 
systems,  until  now  there  are  water  routes  from  the  Baltic 
Sea  to  the  Black  Sea.  See  map  on  page  201.  The  water- 
ways were  developed  before  there  were  many  railroads, 
and  yet  they  are  still  very  important  in  commerce. 

Coast  line.  Russia  is  unfortunate  in  not  having  more 
good  harbors.  The  ports  in  the  Far  North  and  on  the 
Gulf  of  Finland  are  frozen  for  a  large  part  of  each  year 
(Fig.  405).  By  means  of  the  long,  navigable  rivers  and 
the  railroads  the  Black  Sea  ports  may  be  used,  for  they 
are  open  throughout  the  year,  but  it  is  a  long,  indirect 
route  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  great  seaports  of  the 
leading  nations  of  the  world. 

Natural  resources.  Use  map  on  page  201.  Russia  is 
fortunate  in  having  large  areas  of  most  excellent  soils, 
extensive  forests,  and  great  mineral  wealth.  Coal  is 
found  in  several  places  in  the  lowland  and  in  the  foot- 
hills of  the  mountains.  There  are  also  rich  supplies  of 
oil.  One  of  the  leading  mining  districts  is  in  the  Ural 
Mountains,  where  platinum,  gold,  copper,  and  iron  are 
obtained.  All  these  metals  are  very  important  in  modern 
industries.  The  Ural  Mountains  are  believed  to  be 
the  world's  richest  source  of  platinum.  Petroleum  is 
abundant  around  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

The  fur-bearing  animals  of  the  forests  and  the  fish 
in  the  streams  and   seas  are  also  valuable  resources. 


RUSSIA 


199 


Climate.  Russia  is  so  far  inland  and  extends  so  far 
from  north  to  south,  that  there  are  great  extremes  in 
temperature  and  great  variety  in  the  climate.  The  rain- 
fall is  greatest  in  the  west  and  decreases  to  the  east  and 
southeast  until  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Caspian  Sea  there 
is  a  large  semidesert  area. 

In  the  Far  North  the  ground  never  thaws  for  more 
than  a  few  inches  below  the  surface.  There  are  frosts  for 
six  months  of  the  year,  and  all  the  streams  and  harbors 
are  frozen  over  in  winter.  In  the  extreme  south  the 
climate  is  very  warm.  For  several  months  the  tempera- 
ture averages  70  degrees  or  over.  This  means  that  dur- 
ing the  warmest  part  of  the  day  the  temperature  will 
be  much  above  70  degrees.  In  the  central  part,  and 
especially  near  the  eastern  boundary  of  Russia,  the 
winters  are  cold,  more  like  those  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  country,  and  the  summers  are  warm.  Here  the  ex- 
tremes in  temperature  during  the  year  are  the  greatest. 


Fig.  406.  The  city  of  Petrograd  was  founded  more  than  two  hundred  years  ago 
by  a  Russian  emperor  who  wished  to  have  a  great  Russian  city  on  the  Baltic 
Sea.  Locate  Petrograd  on  your  map.  Why  is  the  location  of  Moscow  more 
favorable  for  the  capital  of  the  nation  ?  What  are  the  exports  of  Petrograd  ? 

Home  work.  1.  In  the  best  reference  book  available  read  about 
the  peasant  life  in  Russia.  2.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the 
present  government  of  Russia. 

Occupations.  The  occupations  of  most  of  the  Russian 
people  are  directly  dependent  upon  the  climatic  condi- 
tions. In  the  tundra  of  the  Far  North,  fishermen,  hunters, 
and  reindeer  herders  live  a  wandering  life.  On  the  south- 
ern margin  of  the  tundra  belt  there  are  low,  stunted 
trees ;  farther  south  is  the  great  evergreen  forest.  Here 
timber  is  cut  and  wild  animals  are  trapped  for  their  furs. 

South  of  the  evergreen  forest,  where  the  climate  is  less 
severe,  is  the  forest  of  broad-leaved  trees.  Here  frosts 
are  common  for  from  two  to  four  months  of  the  year, 


but  agriculture  is  possible.  Timber  is  cut  and  flax,  rye, 
barley,  oats,  and  large  quantities  of  potatoes  are  raised 
where  the  forest  has  been  cleared  away. 

The  famous  black-soil  belt  of  Russia,  where  immense 
crops  of  wheat  are  raised,  is  south  of  the  forested  area. 


Fig.  407.  In  the  foreground  of  this  view  is  the  Moskva  River,  on  which  Moscow 

is  located,  and  in  the  background  are  some  of  the  public  buildings  of  the  city. 

At  the  left  rise  the  towers  of  the  old  fortress  which  is  known  as  the  Kremlin. 

Locate  Moscow  on  your  map  and  explain  its  commercial  importance 

Here  the  people  appreciate  the  advantages  of  labor- 
saving  devices,  and  American  harvesting  machines  have 
been  introduced. 

The  dry  steppe  country  to  the  southeast  is  a  grassland, 
where  the  herding  of  cattle  and  sheep  is  the  most  profit- 
able occupation.  Near  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea  the 
land  is  so  dry  that  very  little  will  grow  there. 

The  mining  of  metals  in  the  mountains,  the  discovery 
of  coal  and  oil,  and  the  cutting  of  timber  have  led  to  the 
development  of  manufacturing  in  several  of  the  cities. 
The  raw  materials  from  the  farms  and  the  wool  and 
hides  that  are  supplied  from  the  grazing  districts  have 
also  encouraged  the  manufacturing  industries. 

Government.  Before  the  World  War  Russia  was  an 
empire  with  an  emperor,  or  czar,  who  was  an  absolute 
ruler.  Since  the  war  the  country  has  become  a  union 
of  federated  republics.  Russia  proper  is  the  largest  of 
these  federated  republics.  The  others  are  White  Russia, 
Ukraine,  Georgia,  Azerbaijan",  and  Armenia. 

Moscow,  the  capital  of  the  union  of  Russian  republics, 
is  centrally  located  in  Russia  proper.  It  is  on  one  of  the 
tributaries  of  the  Volga  and  in  the  midst  of  forests  which 
furnish  an  abundance  of  fuel  and  building  material.  The 
rivers  have  made  it  possible  to  bring  to  this  center  raw 
materials,  such  as  flax  and  grains  from  the  agricultural 
districts.    Coal  is  obtained  a  little  south  of  the  city,  and 


200 


MAP  STUDIES 


Moscow  has  become  a  manufacturing  center.    Cotton,  then  to  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas.   Cattle,  sheep,  and 

linen,  and  woolen  goods  are  made  here.    This  city  is  also  goats  are  raised  on  the  foothills  of  the  mountains,  while 

an  important  trading  center  and  one  from  which  ma-  cereals,  cotton,  and  fruits  are  produced  in  large  quantities 

chinery  is  distributed  to  the  great  farming  regions  of  on  the  lowlands. 


Russia  (Fig.  407).  Tula,  a  little  south  of  Moscow,  on  a 
still  smaller  tributary  stream  in  the  Volga  system,  is  in 
the  midst  of  a  coal  fiejd,  and  by  importing  iron  this  city 
has  developed  industries  like  those  of  Sheffield,  England. 


At  the  eastern  end  of  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  is  Baku,  in  the  midst  of  one 
of  the  greatest  oil-producing  regions  in  the  world.  Much 
of  the  oil  is  pumped  through  pipes  up  the  valley  of  the 


Petrograd,  the  capital  of  the  former  Russian  Empire,     Kura  to  Batum  on  the  Black  Sea,  and  shipped  from  there 


is  built  largely  on  piles  in  a  swampy  region  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Neva  River  (Fig.  406).  In  spite  of  the  fact  that 
its  harbor  is  closed  by  ice  through  the  long  winter  months, 
Petrograd  is  an  important  Russian  port.  Archangel,  the 
oldest  Russian  port,  is  on  the  White  Sea.  It  is  at  the 
mouth  of  the  northern 
Dvina  (Fig.  405). 

At  the  junction  of  the 
Oka  and  the  Volga  is  Nizh- 
nii  Novgorod,  a  city  built 
partly  on  a  hill  and  partly 
on  the  lowland  bordering  the 
stream.  It  is  famous  for  its 
annual  fair,  to  which  come 
merchants  and  traders  from 
all  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  some  from  more  distant 
lands.  Perm  is  located  near 
the  western  base  of  the  Ural 
Mountains  on  a  tributary  of 
the  Volga  and  is  the  center 
of  one  of  the  great  mining 
districts  of  Russia.  It  is  on 
the  railroad  that  starts  from 
Petrograd,  crosses  the  Russian  plain  and  the  Urals,  and 
joins  the  transcontinental  line  across  Siberia. 

Samara  is  a  river  port  situated  at  a  very  sharp  bend 
in  the  Volga  River,  and  from  here  another  railroad, 
which  starts  at  Riga  and  goes  by  way  of  Moscow, 
crosses  eastward  and  joins  the  great  Siberian  road. 
Astrakhan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Volga,  is  the  chief  port 
on  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  center  of  the  sturgeon  fish- 
eries (Fig.  408). 

Trans-Caucasian  Republics 

South  of  the  Caucasus  Mountains  are  the  Russian 
republics  of  Georgia,  Azerbaijan,  and  Armenia.  Georgia 
includes  part  of  the  Black  Sea  coast,  and  Azerbaijan  ex- 
tends to  the  Caspian  Sea.    Armenia  has  no  seacoast. 

Here  the  summers  are  warm  and  dry,  but  the  winters 
are  cold  and  rainy.  To  the  north  are  the  magnificent 
snow-covered  peaks  of  the  Caucasus  that  furnish  an  abun- 
dance of  water  to  the  streams  that  flow  southward  and 


Fig.  408.  These  men  are  Caspian  Sea  fishermen.  They  have  just  brought 
ashore  two  large  sturgeon  which  they  have  caught  The  sturgeon  are  valu- 
able chiefly  for  their  eggs,  which  are  salted  and  packed  in  oil  for  export. 
In  this  form  they  are  known  as  caviar,  a  product  which  finds  a  large  market 
in  Europe  and  the  United  States 


to  various  ports  of  Europe  and  to  Egypt. 

White  Russia 

This  Russian  republic  lies  in  the  basin  of  the  western 
tributaries  of  the  Dnieper.    The  land  is  low,  and  much  of 

it  is  swampy  and  infertile. 
For  this  reason  the  popula- 
tion is  not  large.  Most  of 
the  people  are  engaged  in 
fanning  and  lumbering. 
The  only  city  of  importance 
is  Minsk,  on  the  railroad 
which  runs  from  Moscow 
to  Warsaw. 

MAP  STUDIES 

1.    What    European    coun- 
tries are  shown  on  this  map  ? 
2.  What  navigable  river  flows 
into  the  White  Sea  ?   3.  What 
navigable  river  flows  into  the 
Caspian  Sea  ?    4.  Name  three 
large  navigable  rivers  that  flow 
into  the  Black  Sea.    5.  What 
is  the  chief  river  of  Poland  ? 
6.  Describe  an  inland  water  route  from  the  White  Sea  to 
the   Caspian   Sea,  from   Danzig   to  the  capital  of  Ukraine. 
7.  What  are  the  chief  ports  on  the  Baltic  Sea?    8.  Describe 
the  water  route  from  Odessa  to  Athens. 

9.  What  cities  appear  to  be  important  railroad  centers? 
10.  From  this  map  locate  the  chief  forest  area.  Refer  to  the 
map  opposite  page  216  to  see  if  you  are  correct.  11.  Locate 
areas  where  sugar  beets  are  raised  ;  where  wheat  is  produced ; 
where  flax  is  grown. 

12.  Where  are  the  Russian  mines  that  produce  metals? 

13.  Where  does  the  oil  shipped  from  Odessa  come  from  ? 

14.  Where  does  the  oil  that  is  shipped  from  Batum  come 
from  ?  15.  Where  are  the  Russian  supplies  of  coal  and  iron  ? 
16.  What  is  the  chief  food  fish  in  the  Caspian  Sea? 

17.  If  a  canal  were  made  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Caspian 
Sea,  which  way  would  the  water  flow?  18.  Is  New  York  or 
Constantinople  farther  from  the  equator  ? 

19.  Is  Paris  or  the  capital  of  Ukraine  nearer  the  north 
pole  ?  20.  Is  London  or  the  capital  of  Poland  farther  from 
the  equator?  21.  What  port  in  northern  Russia  is  in  about 
the  same  latitude  as  the  capital  of  Iceland  ? 


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)  Ginn  and  Company 


202 


Rl'MANIA 


RUMANIA 

In  the  northwest  Rumania  is  mountainous  and  in- 
cludes the  Plateau  of  Transylvania.  In  the  east  and 
south  there  is  a  lowland  plain  which  is  an  extension  of 
the  Central  Plains  of  Europe. 

Most  of  the  low  country  is  a  wonderfully  fertile  land, 
and  agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  (Figs.  413,  414). 
The  rainfall  is  moderate  in  the  plain,  and  wheat  is  the 


'&)  Fress  Illustrating  Service,  Inc. 


Fig.  409.   This  is  the  Opera  House  at  Kiev,  the  capital  of  Ukraine.  Kiev  is 

a  very  old  city  and  is  the  center  of  Ukrainian  art,  culture,  and  religion.  To 

the  Ukrainians  and  their  neighbors,  the  Russians,  it  is  a  holy  city,  and 

thousands  of  pilgrims  visit  its  churches  each  year 

Ukraine 

The  Russian  republic  of  Ukraine  borders  the  northern 
shore  of  the  Black  Sea.  This  is  the  richest  agricultural 
region  of  all  Russia,  for  most  of  the  republic  lies  in  the 
fertile  black-soil  belt. 

Large  crops  of  wheat  and  other  grains  are  raised,  and 
much  grain  is  exported  (Fig.  410).  Manufactured  goods, 
including  American  agricultural  machinery,  are  imported,  leading  product  (Fig.  412).  In  the  drier  eastern  parts  of 
Ukraine  has  rich  supplies  of  coal  and  iron,  and  already  the  lowland,  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  grass,  cattle 
there  is  some  manufacturing.  and  horses  are  raised. 

Kiev,  the  capital,  is  located  on  the  Dnieper  River  and         The  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  forested,  and 
is  an  industrial  and  commercial  center  (Fig.  409).   Sugar-     near  the  eastern  base  of  the  Carpathians  large  quantities 


)  Exclusive  News  Agencv,  Koeliampton 

Fig.  410.  The  people  in  this  picture  are  Ukrainian  peasants.  The  woman  has 
come  across  the  fields  from  her  house  with  water  for  her  husband  and  son, 
who  are  at  work  on  their  farm.  Notice  the  rude  yoke  by  which  she  carries 
the  water  buckets.  What  products  do  these  Ukrainian  farmers  raise  ?  Why 
is  Ukraine  a  rich  agricultural  country  ? 


refining  is  important  here.  Odessa  is 
the  chief  seaport,  and  large  quantities 
of  wheat  are  shipped  from  this  port 
(Fig.  411). 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Ex- 
plain the  great  difference  in  temperature 
from  north  to  south  in  Russia.  2.  Explain 
the  difference  in  rainfall  from  east  to  west. 
3.  What  portion  of  this  country  has  soils 
of  glacial  origin  ?  4.  What  sources  of  fuel 
and  power  are  there  in  Russia  ? 

5.  How  does  the  climate  affect  the  occu- 
pations of  the  people  in  this  country  ?  Give 
examples.  6.  What  is  the  occupation  of 
most  of  the  people  in  Russia  ?  7.  In  what 
ways  have  the  rivers  of  Russia  proved  to 
be  of  great  value  to  the  country  ? 

8.  What  large  cities  are  located  on 
rivers  ?  9.  In  what  part  of  Russia  are 
there  rich  mineral  deposits  ?  10.  What 
disadvantages  have  the  people  of  Russia 
to  contend  with  ?  11.  Why  is  the  port  of 
Odessa  especially  useful  to  Russia  ? 


Fig.  411.   This  view  shows  part  of  the  harbor  of 

Odessa,  the  leading  seaport  and  commercial  center 

of  Ukraine.  Locate  Odessa  on  the  map  on  page  201. 

What  are  its  chief  exports  ? 


of  oil  are  obtained.  There  are  mineral 
resources  in  the  mountains  that  await 
development.  The  plateau  district  is 
suitable  for  raising  sheep  and  cattle. 

Bucharest  is  the  capital  and  chief 
trading  center.  It  is  a  city  with  all 
modern  conveniences,  and  it  has  be- 
come the  home  of  the  wealthy  people 
of  Rumania,  who  control  vast  areas 
of  the  farming  districts.  The  great 
mass  of  the  people  are  peasants  who 
live  in  very  simple  homes  and  with- 
out the  comforts  that  come  to  in- 
dustrious farmers  in  many  other 
countries. 

Kronstadt  is  a  manufacturing  cen- 
ter. Galatz  is  on  the  lower  Danube 
and  is  the  outlet  for  most  of  the 
products  of  Rumania..  Ocean-going 
vessels  reach  this  port. 


MEDITERRANEAN  LANDS 


203 


Fig.  412.    At  the  harvest  season  the  Rumanian  farmers  take  their  great 

threshing  machines  into  the  fields,  and  as  the  wheat  is  cut  the  bundles  are 

put  through  the  thresher  to  separate  the  grain  from  the  straw.    Why  is 

this  part  of  the  Danube  Valley  so  favorable  to  the  growth  of  wheat  ? 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  are  the  chief  natural 
resources  of  Eumania  ?  2.  How  have  the  resources  influenced 
the  occupations  ?  3.  What  country  is  southern  and  eastern 
Eumania  most  like  ?  4.  What  navigable  river  is  available  ? 
5.  Name  the  capital  and  chief  port. 

Home  work.    Find  out  the  origin  of  the  name  "  Eumania." 

MEDITERRANEAN  LANDS 

The  countries  of  Europe  which  we  have  not  yet  con- 
sidered occupy  three  peninsulas  extending  southward 
into  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  In  the  west  is  the  Iberian 
Peninsula,  which  is  divided  between  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  Andorra,  the  tiny  republic  which 
is  located  high  among  the  Pyrenees. 
Italy  occupies  the  long  peninsula 
with  the  curious  boot-shaped  out- 
line. The  eastern,  or  Balkan,  penin- 
sula is  divided  into  Jugoslavia, 
Albania,  Greece,  Bulgaria,  and  the 
area  about  Constantinople. 

These  peninsulas  of  Europe  are 
mountainous  regions  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Plain  of  the  Po, 
have  very  limited  lowlands.  See 
map  between  pages  207  and  210. 

The  temperature  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean lands  is  distinctly  wanner 
than  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  This 
is  due  in  part  to  the  latitude  and 
in  part  to  the  high  mountains  that 
keep  off  cold  winds  from  the  north. 

The  rainfall  in  this  part  of  Europe 
comes  chiefly  in  winter.  This  needs 


a  special  explanation.  During  the  summer,  when  the 
sun's  rays  are  vertical  north  of  the  equator,  the  belt  of 
the  northeast  trade  winds  has  moved  so  far  northward 
that  it  includes  the  peninsulas  which  extend  into  the 
Mediterranean.  These  northeast  trades  come  from  over 
the  land  and  contain  little  moisture.  Furthermore,  since 
they  are  blowing  toward  the  equator  and  getting  warmer, 
their  tendency  is  to  take  up  more  moisture.  The  Medi- 
terranean countries  therefore  have  a  dry  summer,  and 
the  skies  are  clear  and  blue. 

When  winter  comes,  the  trade-wind  belt  migrates 
southward,  and  the  westerly  winds,  which  bring  moisture 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  prevail  in  these  lands.  Clouds 
form  and  rain  falls  abundantly  in  most  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries  during  the  winter.  The  rainfall  is 
heaviest  on  the  windward  sides  of  the  mountains  and 
lightest  in  the  plateau  of  central  Spain,  where  the  moun- 
tains keep  off  the  rain-bearing  winds  or  force  them  to 
give  up  their  moisture  before  they  reach  the  interior. 

The  peoples  in  the  Mediterranean  portion  of  Europe 
have  languages  quite  distinct  from  those  used  in  the 
countries  farther  north.  The  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and 
Italian  languages  are  related  in  origin  to  the  Latin  used 
by  the  ancient  Romans.  The  people  who  migrated  into 
Rumania  were  from  Italy,  and  their  language  is  much 
like  the  Italian.  The  Greek  language  of  to-day  is  directly 
derived  from  that  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  the  lan- 
guages of  the  various  Balkan  states  show  a  relationship 
to  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  tongues,  though  the  long 
isolation  of  the  people  among  the  mountain  valleys  of  this 
peninsula  has  produced  dialects  which  are  quite  distinct. 


(£)P 


Fig.  413.  This  man  is  a  Rumanian  farmer.  He  is 
pitching  hay  with  a  homemade  wooden  pitchfork. 
What  other  countries  share  with  Rumania  the  agri- 
cultural advantages  of  the  fertile  Danube  Valley? 


i£J  Press  Illustrating  Serried  Inc. 

Fig.  414.  In  Rumania,  as  in  most  of  the  other  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  the  women  work  in  the  fields  just  as 
the  men  do.  These  Rumanian  peasant  women  are 
starting  out  for  their  day's  work  of  cutting  wheat 


204 


SPAIN 


SPAIN  sheep  and  goats  are  raised.    Here  many  of  the  sheep  are 

Surface  features  and  climate.    Most  of  Spain  is  in-     merinos,  which  produce  a  very  fine  grade  of  wool.    The 

eluded  in  the  Iberian  Plateau,  which  is  called  the  Meseta.     southern  portion  of  the  Meseta  is  so  dry  and  the  soil  is 


Fig.  415.   This  is  the  Puerto  del  Sol,  the  largest  public  square  in  Madrid.    Eight  of  the  principal 

streets  meet  in  this  square,  making  it  the  business  center  of  the  city.  Locate  Madrid  on  the  map 

between  pages  207  and  210.  In  what  natural  region  is  the  city  situated  ?  Describe  the  climate  here. 

Is  the  location  of  Madrid  a  favorable  one  for  the  capital  of  the  country  ? 


About  the  margin 
of  this  plateau 
there  are  moun- 
tain ranges  that 
obstruct  the  winds 
and  force  them  to 
give  up  their  mois- 
ture. The  annual 
rainfall  is  about 
100  inches  in  the 
Cantabrian  Moun- 
tains and  between 
60  and  80  inches 
in  the  Pyrenees. 
The  Sierra  Morena 
and  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada, because  of 
their  elevation,  re- 
ceive a  moderately 
heavy  rainfall,  but 
the  central  portion  of  the  country,  the  Meseta,  is  one 
of  the  driest  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 

Since  the  Meseta  is  so  shut  in  by  mountains,  it  has 
a  climate  somewhat  like  that  of  a  land  in  the  interior 
of  a  continent.  The  rainfall  is  light,  and  there  are 
extremes  in  temperature.  At  Madrid  the  average  tem- 
perature is  about  40°  F.  in  the  coldest  month  and  about 
75°  F.  in  the  hottest  month.  At  the  seaports  of  Spain  the 
variation  in  temperature  from  the  hottest  to  the  coldest 
month  is  very  much   less   than  it  is  in  the  Meseta. 

Resources  and  occupations.  In  the 
region  of  the  Pyrenees  and  Canta- 
brian Mountains  there  are  magnifi- 
cent forests  of  ash,  beech,  and  cork 
oak  (Fig.  417),  and  the  Cantabrian 
Range  contains  rich  deposits  of  coal 
and  iron.  These  resources  have  led 
to  lumbering  and  mining.  The  iron 
ore  is  exported  from  harbors  on  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  to  Wales.  In  the  val- 
leys between  the  mountains  there 
are  dairy  farms. 

The  northern  portion  of  the  Meseta 
is  suitable  for  the  raising  of  cereals, 
especially  wheat,  which  ripens  in  a 
dry  climate.  In  places  the  streams 
that  come  from  the  mountains  are 
used  for  irrigating  the  fields.  In 
the  poorer  grasslands  of  the  plateau 


©£., 


Fig.  416.  This  is  a  very  old  bridge  across  the  Tagus 

River  at  Toledo.  Locate  Toledo  on  your  map.  This 

is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  Spain  and  was  once 

the  capital  of  the  kingdom 


so  poor  that  little 
but  grazing  is  car- 
ried on  in  this  part 
of  Spain. 

Great  canyons 
cross  the  central 
part  of  the  Meseta, 
and  they  are  such 
effective  obstruc- 
tions to  communi- 
cation that  the  life 
in  the  northern 
portion  of  the  pla- 
teau is  quite  dis- 
tinct from  that  in 
the  south. 

In  the  valley  of 
the  Guadalquivir 
River  is  a  fertile 
lowland  in  which 
large  crops  of  tobacco,  oranges,  grapes,  figs,  cotton,  and 
sugar  are  raised  by  means  of  irrigation.  Wine  is  pro- 
duced in  the  vineyards  and  exported  from  Cadiz,  the  chief 
seaport  in  the  south  of  Spain.  This  rich  lowland  region 
also  produces  excellent  horses,  bulls,  and  sheep. 

In  the  Sierra  Nevada  there  are  valuable  deposits  of 
iron,  copper,  silver,  lead,  zinc,  and  quicksilver.    These 
resources  have  led  to  mining,  and  Spain  now  produces 
more  lead  and  copper  than  any  other  European  country. 
The  lowlands  bordering  the  Mediterranean  coast  have 
a  climate  much  like  that  of  southern 
California,  and  these  lands  have  been 
carefully  cultivated.   Even  the  slopes 
of  the  mountains  are  made  useful  by 
terracing,  and  all  kinds  of  Mediter- 
ranean fruits  are  grown.    Fresh  and 
dried  fruits  and  wine  are  exported. 
In  this  region  bits  of  cork  are  used 
in  packing  the  fresh  grapes.    The 
cork  is  very  light  and  does  not  injure 
the  fruit. 

The  lowland  of  the  Ebro  River, 
which  is  located  just  south  of  the 
Pyrenees,  has  a  poor  soil  which  re- 
quires irrigation.  This  lowland  is 
shut  off  from  the  sea  by  a  mountain 
range,  through  which  the  Ebro 
River  flows  in  a  deep  gorge  to  the 
Mediterranean  Sea. 


SPAIN 


205 


Cities.  Madrid  is  the  chief  city  of 
the  interior  and  is  the  capital  of  Spain. 
Over  half  a  million  people  live  here, 
but  the  city  is  unlike  the  large  cities 
of  central  and  western  Europe,  be- 
cause manufacturing  is  not  an  im- 
portant occupation.  The  capital  has 
become  the  chief  railroad  center, 
although  it  is  difficult,  on  account 
of  the  deep  canyons,  for  railroads  to 
be  constructed  over  the  top  of  the 
Meseta.  Madrid  has  a  magnificent 
royal  palace  and  a  wonderful  art 
gallery.  In  many  respects  it  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly interesting  and  attractive 
city,  but  the  surrounding  country  is 
an  arid  waste. 

Seville  is  an  industrial  and  com- 
mercial center.  Iron  and  coal  are 
supplied  from  the  mines  in  the  Sierra 


Fig.  417.    These  Spanish  workmen  are  cutting 

sheets  of  cork  oak  bark  into  strips.  This  is  one 

of  the  steps  in  the  process  of  making  corks  from 

the  bark  of  the  cork  oak  tree 


are  fertile,  and  tropical  fruits  are 
easily  raised.  The  Canary  Islands 
(see  map,  p.  227)  also  belong  to  Spain. 

In  Africa  Spain  has  possession  of 
two  small  areas,  Rio  de  Oro  on  the 
northwest  coast  and  Rio  Muni  on  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea.  In  addition  a  few  of 
the  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea 
belong  to  Spain. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  how  few 
foreign  possessions  remain  to  Spain, 
the  nation  which  once  controlled  vast 
areas  in  the  two  Americas  and  sent 
the  first  sailing  vessel  around  the 
world. 

Gibraltar  is  a  bold  rock  at  the  ex- 
treme southern  end  of  the  Iberian 
Peninsula,  joined  to  the  Sierra  Nevada 
by  a  sand  bar  which  is  neutral  land. 
The  rock  has  been  in  British  posses- 


Nevada,    and   many   products   are    brought    from    the     sion  for  more  than  two  centuries  and  is  one  of  the 
lowland  of  the  Guadalquivir  River.    Large  quantities     strongest  fortifications  in  the  world  (Fig.  419). 
of  tobacco  are  manufactured  here. 


Barcelona,  second  to  Madrid  in  size,  is  the  chief  sea- 
port of  Spain.  It  is  built  on  a  narrow  coastal  plain  but 
has  a  good  harbor  (Fig.  418).  Wool,  cotton,  and  silk 
are  brought  to  the  city  to  supply  its  large  textile  mills. 
Valencia  is  beautifully  situated  in  a  garden  region,  where, 
in  addition  to  cotton,  all  kinds  of  Mediterranean  fruits 
are  raised. 

Possessions.  The  Balearic  Islands  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea  belong  to  Spain.  They  have  a  very  mild  climate 
and  are  attracting  more  and  more  tourists.    The  soils 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  are  the  chief  mountain 
ranges  of  Spain  ?  2.  Why  is  the  climate  of  the  central  plateau 
of  Spain  very  dry  ?  3.  What  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the 
people  who  live  on  the  plateau  of  Spain  ?  4.  Why  has  this  not 
become  a  manufacturing  or  industrial  region  ? 

5.  In  what  portions  of  this  country  have  mineral  deposits  been 
found  ?  6.  What  two  minerals  has  Spain  in  great  abundance  ? 
7.  Where  is  irrigation  practiced  ?  8.  What  fruits  are  raised  here 
in  abundance  ?  9.  What  place  in  Spain  should  you  like  most  to 
visit  ?    Why  ?    10.  Name  the  capital  and  two  seaports. 

Home  work.  Read  about  the  cork  oak  tree.  Find  out  all  you  can 
about  where  it  grows  and  how  corks  are  made  from  its  bark. 


j 

•   ft 

fc- 

ijk 

Fig.  418.  This  is  a  view  of  the  busy  water  front  at  Barcelona.  At  the  left 
is  the  customhouse  where  the  charges  on  exports  and  imports  are  collected. 
Locate  Barcelona  on  your  map.  What  things  do  you  think  the  ship  in  this 
picture  may  have  brought  to  Barcelona  ?  What  products  will  it  take  away  ? 


Fig.  419.  The  rock  of  Gibraltar  guards  the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Because  of  its  commanding  position  many 
nations  have  tried  to  gain  control  of  it.  Since  it  has  been  in  British  posses- 
sion the  British  people  have  kept  the  strait  open  for  the  vessels  of  all  nations 


206 


PORTUGAL 


Fig.  420.   The  city  of  Lisbon  is  well  located  on  a  group  of  hills  which  rise 

above  the  north  bank  of  the  Tagus  River.    This  view  shows  one  of  the 

public  squares  of  the  capital.  The  broad  mouth  of  the  Tagus  gives  the  city 

an  excellent  harbor  and  has  led  to  its  development  as  an  important  port 

PORTUGAL 

This  country  is  lower  than  most  of  Spain,  and,  since 
it  borders  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  it  has  more  rainfall  and 
a  milder  climate  than  Spain.  The  fertile  land  is  well 
adapted  to  agriculture,  and  grapevines  are  cultivated  on 
a  large  scale.   Many  of  the  hillsides  are  used  for  pastures. 

Natural  regions.  In  the  north  the  land  is  hilly  near 
the  coast  but  rises  inland  to  mountain  ranges.  Near 
Oporto  and  extending  southward  there  is  a  narrow 
coastal  lowland.  This  lowland  is  bordered  on  the  east 
by  the  western  margin  of  the  Iberian  Plateau.  There  is 
another  lowland  area  about  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus  River. 


North  and  south  of  this  lowland  area  the  mountains  on 
the  western  margin  of  the  plateau  come  to  the  coast. 
Oporto,  the  seaport  and  industrial  center  of  northern 
Portugal,  is  near  the  mouth  of  the  Douro  River,  and  the 
wines  manufactured  in  the  Douro  district  are  shipped 
from  this  city  (Fig.  421).  There  are  cotton  and  woolen 
mills  in  the  city,  and  it  is  also  the  home  of  many 
fishermen.  Farther  south  in  Portugal  are  the  wonderful 
cork  forests  which  have  led  to  an  industry  of  very  great 
importance.  The  United  States  imports  millions  of  dol- 
lars' worth  of  cork  each  year,  mostly  from  Portugal. 


Fig.  421.  This  man  and  his  wife  have  a  vineyard  on  the  warm,  sunny  slopes 

of  the  Douro  River,  where  they  raise  grapes  and  make  wine.    They  are 

taking  a  cask  of  wine  by  ox-cart  to  Oporto,  where  they  will  sell  it  to  a  wine 

merchant  who  buys  the  products  of  the  Douro  vineyards  for  export 


Fig.  422.  The  men  in  this  picture  are  threshing  wheat  in  the  fertile  lowlands 

of  the  Tagus  River.   The  threshing  machine  is  in  the  background.   Notice 

the  nets  with  which  the  carts  are  fitted,  to  prevent  the  grain  from  falling 

off.  What  other  products  do  the  farmers  of  the  Tagus  lowlands  raise  ? 

Wheat,  rice,  olives,  lemons,  figs,  and  grapes  are  grown 
on  the  lowlands  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Tagus  River 
(Fig.  422).  In  the  hills  bordering  this  lowland  there  are 
copper  deposits.  Lisbon,  located  on  the  Tagus,  twelve 
miles  above  its  mouth,  is  the  industrial  center  of  south- 
ern Portugal  and  the  capital  of  the  republic  (Fig.  420). 
It  contains  iron  works,  woolen  factories,  and  shipbuild- 
ing yards.  Sardine  factories  are  common  in  this  part  of 
Portugal.  Sardines  form  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  food, 
and  many  of  the  children  carry  them  about  in  baskets  to 
sell.  The  growth  of  Lisbon  is  due  to  its  position  on  the 
Tagus,  its  nearness  to  the  cork  forests,  and  the  impor- 
tance of  the  sardine  factories. 

Foreign  possessions.  The  Portuguese  were  once  ex- 
plorers and  visited  many  foreign  shores.  See  Appendix, 
Plate  A.  To-day  Portugal  has  small  colonies  in  Asia 
and  larger  possessions  in  Africa  (p.  229) ;  the  Azores, 
Madeira,  and  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  off  the  west  coast 
of  Africa,  belong  to  Portugal. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  "Why  does  Portugal  have 
a  milder  climate,  with  more  rainfall,  than  Spain  ?  2.  How  are  the 
hillsides  in  Portugal  used?  3.  What  is  cork?  4.  Why  should 
this  country  be  a  good  region  for  raising  grapes,  lemons,  figs,  and 
olives  ?  5.  What  are  the  two  chief  cities  of  Portugal  ?  6.  Where 
are  the  Portuguese  colonial  possessions  ? 


ITALY 


207 


n  =  .^siawr^RT 


-.?**$ 


Fig.  423.  Lake  Maggiore  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  sheets  of  water  in  Europe. 
Locate  this  lake  on  your  map.  To  what  group  of  mountains  do  the  peaks  in 
this  picture  belong  ?  Notice  in  the  foreground  the  picturesque  washing-cart 
which  the  Italian  women  push  into  the  water  in  order  to  do  their  washing 

ITALY 

Physical  features  and  climate.  The  chief  lowland  of 
Italy  is  in  the  valley  of  the  Po.  Here  the  rivers  have 
filled  in  the  upper  end  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  with  fine 
materials  from  the  bordering  mountains  and  made  a 
broad,  fertile  plain.  The  summers  are  warm  through- 
out this  lowland,  but  in  the  west,  near  Milan  and  Turin, 
the  winters  are  cold.  The  presence  of  the  sea  causes  mild 
winters  in  the  vicinity  of  Venice  and  Padua.  The  rain- 
fall near  Milan  is  about  40  inches  a 
year  and  near  Venice  about  30  inches. 

The  south  slope  of  the  Alps  belongs 
to  Italy.  Here  there  are  magnificent 
peaks,  great,  deep  canyons,  and  many 
beautiful  lakes  (Fig.  423).  The  moun- 
tains keep  off  the  cold  winds  from 
the  north,  and  therefore  the  valleys 
on  the  south  slope  of  the  Alps  are 
warmer  than  those  on  the  north  slope. 

Tbe  Alps  curve  southward,  and 
at  the  point  where  they  reach  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  the  Apennine 
Range  begins.  This  range  follows 
the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Genoa  and 
then  turns  southward  through  the 
central  portion  of  the  Italian  Penin- 
sula. These  mountains  commonly 
bave  elevations  of  from  5000  to 
8000  feet  above  the  sea.  They  are 
not  high  enough,  in  the  latitude 
where  they  are  located,  to  have  an 
extremely  cold  climate.  Their  eleva- 
tion is  sufficient  to  cause  the  winds 


Fig.  425.  This  picture  of  Mt.  Vesuvius  was  taken 

when  the  volcano  was  in  eruption.  The  dark  cloud 

which  it  sends  forth  is  made  up  of  steam,  ashes, 

and  bits  of  lava 


Fig.  424.  The  gardens  of  the  Vatican  Palace  at  Rome  are  very  large  and  beau- 
tiful. This  palace  is  the  residence  of  the  Pope  and  takes  its  name  from  the 
hill  upon  which  it  is  built.  In  the  background  of  this  view  rises  the  dome  of 
St.  Peter's,  the  great  Roman  church  which  stands  close  by  the  Pope's  palace 

to  give  up  moisture,  and  there  is  enough  rainfall  to 
support  forests.  In  the  southern  portion  of  Italy  the 
temperature  seldom  falls  as  low  as  the  freezing  point. 
The  narrow  coastal  lowlands  on  the  east  and  west 
of  the  Apennine  Mountains  never  have  very  cold 
weather,  and  during  the  summer  the  temperature  is 
usually  70°  F.  or  higher. 

Sardinia,  Sicily,  and  a  number  of  smaller  islands  in 
the  Mediterranean  belong  to  Italy.  Sardinia  is  for  the 
most  part  mountainous,  but  there  is 
a  little  lowland  area  in  the  south- 
western part  of  the  island,  and  in 
the  valley  bottoms  there  are  lands 
that  can  be  cultivated  with  the  help 
of  irrigation. 

Sicily  is  an  extension  of  the  Apen- 
nine Range  and  was  formerly  con- 
nected with  the  mainland.  In  the 
narrow  Strait  of  Messina,  which 
separates  the  island  of  Sicily  from 
the  Italian  Peninsula,  there  are 
great  cracks  in  the  earth  where  the 
lands  often  slip  a  little  and  thus 
cause  earthquakes. 

Mt.  Etna,  which  is  an  active  vol- 
cano, is  in  Sicily,  and  Mt.  Vesuvius, 
one  of  the  most  famous  active  volca- 
noes in  the  world,  is  located  near 
the  Bay  of  Naples  (Fig.  425).  The 
earthquakes  and  volcanoes  which  are 
common  in  this  region  indicate  that 
the  Apennine  Mountains  are  young 
and  that  they  are  still  growing. 


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Map  Plate,  Patented  July  5,  UN     -     Method  of  Making  Maps,  Patented  July  S,  1021 


Boundary  of  the  Demilitarized  Zone  of  the  Straits 


Ginn  and  Company 


210 


ITALY 


MAP  STUDIES 
(Use  map  between  pages  207  and  210) 

1.  What  continents  border  the  Mediterranean  Sea  ?  2.  What 
three  large  European  peninsulas  extend  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea  ?  3.  What  is  the  Atlantic  gateway  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  called  ?    4.  About  how  wide  is  that  gateway  ? 

5.  Describe  an  imaginary  journey  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  Black  Sea.  6.  How  do  vessels  pass  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  Red  Sea?  Describe  the  landscape  seen  on  that 
journey.  7.  Name  four  navigable  rivers  that  flow  into  the 
Mediterranean  Sea;  four  that  flow  into  the  Black  Sea. 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  countries  that  border  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea ;  of  those  that  border  on  the  Black  Sea.  9.  Make 
a  list  of  the  chief  seaports  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Oppo- 
site each  name  place  the  name  of  the  country  in  which  that 
seaport  is  located. 

10.  What  are  the  chief  seaports  on  the  Black  Sea  ?  11.  Make 
a  list  of  the  chief  exports  from  the  European  cities  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  12.  Which  of  these  exports  suggest  a 
warm  climate  for  southern  Europe  ?  13.  What  are  the  chief 
exports  from  the  Black  Sea  ports  ? 

14.  What  are  the  chief  products  shipped  from  African  ports 
on  the  Mediterranean  Sea?  15.  What  port,  east  of  Athens, 
ships  large  quantities  of  figs?  16.  What  important  Atlantic 
seaports  are  shown  on  this  map  ? 

17.  Where  are  the  great  cork-oak  forests  in  Portugal? 
18.  Where  are  the  mining  districts  in  Spain  ?  the  grazing 
districts  ?  the  chief  fruit-raising  districts  ?  19.  What  are  the 
chief  products  of  the  lowlands  in  the  valley  of  the  Po? 

20.  Where  in  Italy  are  there  vineyards  ?  marble  quarries  ? 

21.  What    does    the    United    States    receive    from    Sicily? 

22.  Judging  from  the  products  of  Jugoslavia,  Greece,  Albania, 
and  Bulgaria,  what  should  you  think  must  be  the  chief 
occupations  of  the  people  in  those  countries  ? 

23.  What  are  the  chief  products  of  Palestine  and  Syria? 
24.  Where  are  the  date-producing  regions  near  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea?     25.  Trace  the  meridian  of  0°  on  this  map. 

26.  Compare  the  latitude  of  New  York  with  that  of  Rome. 


Fig.  426.  These  Italian  boys  and  girls  are  picking  grapes  in  a  vineyard  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Apennines,  where  the  dry  summers  are  especially  favorable 
to  the  ripening  of  the  fruit.  Why  are  such  large  areas  in  Italy  devoted  to 
the  cultivation  of  vineyards  ?  What  other  products  do  the  Italians  raise  ? 


Fig.  427.   This  is  one  of  the  quarries  at  Carrara  from  which  the  beautiful 

Italian  marble  is  obtained.   Locate  Carrara  on  the  map  between  pages  181 

and  184.   In  what  natural  region  is  it  ?   Italian  marble  has  been  used  in  the 

construction  of  many  of  the  finest  buildings  in  the  United  States 

Home  work.  1.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  burial  of  the 
cities  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii.  2.  Read  a  full  account  of 
Vesuvius  in  the  best  reference  book  available. 

Resources  and  occupations.  The  soils,  the  forests,  the 
marbles  in  the  mountains,  and  the  fisheries  about  the 
coast  are  the  chief  natural  resources.  Italy  is  a  land 
without  great  variety  in  mineral  wealth.  Sulphur  is 
obtained  in  Sicily.  In  the  islands  of  Elba  and  Sardinia 
there  are  iron  mines.  Some  iron  is  obtained  from  the 
Alps.  The  water-power  furnished  by  the  mountain 
streams  makes  up  somewhat  for  the  lack  of  coal. 

In  the  north,  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Alps,  olives, 
grapes,  mulberries,  and  figs  are  raised,  and  on  some  of 
the  higher  slopes  there  are  pastures  for  cattle,  sheep, 
and  goats.  The  lakes  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  this 
part  of  Italy  attract  many  tourists  and  many  who  seek 
rest  or  health,  and  the  care  of  such  visitors  furnishes 
occupation  to  many  people. 

The  Plain  of  the  Po  is  the  most  important  agricultural 
and  industrial  region  of  Italy,  and  the  most  densely 
settled  district.  The  streams  from  the  mountains  furnish 
water  for  irrigation.  Wheat,  rice,  corn,  and  many  other 
crops  are  raised.  The  absence  of  coal  and  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation to  other  parts  of  Europe  are  disadvantages,  and 
yet  this  region  has  become  an  important  industrial  dis- 
trict.   Milan,  Turin,  and  Venice  are  the  principal  cities. 

In  many  places  the  forests  have  been  cleared  from 
the  slopes  of  the  Apennine  Range,  and  the  hillsides  have 
been  terraced  for  agriculture  or  planted  with  olive, 
orange,  or  lemon  trees.  Many  groves  of  chestnut  trees 
have  been  planted,  and  the  nuts  from  these  trees  are 
used  as  a  food.    Grapevines  grow  in  such  luxuriance  in 


ITALY 


211 


each 


year, 


and 


this  part  of  the  country  that  Italy  has 
become  one  of  the  leading  countries 
in  the  production  of  wine  (Fig.  426). 
Cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are  raised  on 
the  higher  pastures  of  the  range.  In  the 
Apennine  Mountains,  at  Carrara  and 
Siena,  there  are  immense  quarries  where 
large  quantities  of  beautiful  marble  are 
obtained  (Fig.  427). 

On  the  lowland  bordering  the  Adriatic 
Sea  hard  wheat  is  raised.  This  wheat  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  macaroni. 
The  wheat  is  shipped  chiefly  to  Naples, 
which  is  the  center  of  the  macaroni  in- 
dustry, and  additional  supplies  are 
imported  from  Russia  and  South  Aus- 
tralia. The  Italians  manufacture  about 
six  million  dollars'  worth  of  macaroni 
large  quantities  of  it  are  shipped  to  the  United  States. 
In  the  southern  portion  of  Italy  the  forests  have  been 
largely  removed,  the  hillsides  are  barren,  and  the  popu- 
lation is  sparse.  Here  there  are  a  few  fishing  centers,  and 
many  of  the  native  people  are  engaged  in  hunting  for 
coral  and  tortoise  shells,  which  they  bring  back  to  Naples 
and  Genoa  to  be  manufactured  into  ornaments. 

Sicily.  The  climate  and  surface  features  of  Sicily  are 
much  like  those  of  southern  Italy,  and  therefore  the 
crops  resemble  those  of  the  mainland.  Some  wheat  is 
grown,  the  grapevine  flourishes,  and  orange  and  lemon 
trees  are  cultivated.  The  sulphur  mines  of  Sicily  are  on 
Mt.  Etna,  where  a  part  of  the  sulphur  gas,  coming  out 

of  the  earth, 
cooled  quickly, 
forming  a  solid. 
Cities.  Naples 
is  the  largest 
city  in  Italy. 
It  is  located 
near  a  fertile 
lowland  where 
a  very  dense 
population  is 
supported.  The 
climate  is  warm 
in  this  lowland 
area,  and  most 
of  the  people 
lead    an    agri- 

)  Publishers*  Photo  8ervice,  Inc.         CUlTUral  llIC 

Fig.  429.    This  is  a  typical  scene  in  the  old  quarter  Nearly     all     of 

of  Genoa,  where  the  streets  are  narrow  and  the  houses  ,,      .    ,     ,  . 

are  set  close  together.    What  are  the  exports  and  tne  inhabitants 

imports  of  Genoa  ?  of    this    region 


Fig.  428.  St.  Peter's  Church  at  Rome  is  located  on  the  Vatican  Hill,  and  close  by,  at  the  right 
in  this  view,  is  the  Vatican  Palace.  St.  Peter's  is  a  very  old  church,  and  like  the  Vatican  Palace  it 
contains  many  beautiful  paintings  by  Michelangelo,  the  great  Italian  artist.  Locate  Some  on  your  map. 
Why  is  the  population  less  than  it  was  when  the  city  was  the  capital  of  the  Roman  Empire? 


make  their  homes  in  the  villages  near  the  coast  and  go 
into  the  country  each  day  to  work  on  their  farms. 

Palermo  is  the  principal  city  south  of  Naples.  It  is 
the  capital  of  Sicily  and  is  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  fruit- 
growing district. 

Rome  is  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  It  is 
located  on  low  hills  near  the  Tiber  River  and  on  the 
inner  margin  of  a  small  coastal  plain.  In  the  days  of  the 
ancient  Roman  Empire  this  city  had  a  population  of  at 
least  a  million,  and  the  bordering  lowland  was  all  under 
cultivation.  To-day  the  population  is  about  500,000. 
The  surrounding  plains  are  almost  deserted,  for  they  are 
unhealthful  places  where  malaria  is  easily  contracted. 

In  the  city  there  are  many  beautiful  residences  and 
several  magnificent  buildings.  St.  Peter's  Church,  the 
largest  church  in  the  world,  and  the  Vatican,  the  home  of 
the  Pope,  are  in  Rome  (Fig. 428).  Many  of  Michelangelo's 
most  beautiful  paintings  are  in  the  Vatican. 

Florence  is  an  inland  city  in  a  district  where  large  quan- 
tities of  silk  are  produced  and  manufactured.  Mosaic 
work  and  the  plaiting  of  straw  are  also  important  in- 
dustries here.  Some  of  the  most  valuable  art  treasures 
in  the  world  are  in  the  museums  of  Florence.  The 
Italians  are  an  artistic  people  and  may  justly  be  proud 
of  their  work  in  architecture,  painting,  and  sculpture. 
Their  museums  are  all  great  storehouses  of  art,  and  many 
of  their  manufactured  goods  are  distinctly  artistic. 

Milan  and  Turin  are  the  industrial  and  trading  centers 
in  the  western  portion  of  the  northern  lowland.  They 
are  on  the  highways  of  travel  east  and  west  and  north 
and  south.  Large  quantities  of  silk  cloth  are  manufac- 
tured in  Milan. 

Genoa,  the  chief  seaport  in  northern  Italy,  is  the  outlet 
for  many  of  the  products  raised  or  manufactured  in 
the  valley  of  the  Po.    It  is  the  birthplace  of  Columbus. 


212 


ITALY 


Fig.  430.   This  is  a  view  in  the  harbor  of  Trieste.   This  city  came  into  the  possession  of 

Italy  at  the  end  of  the  World  War  in  1918,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  ports  on  the 

Adriatic  Sea.   Locate  Trieste  on  the  map  between  pages  207  and  210.    Compare  the  east 

and  west  shores  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.   Why  has  Italy  so  few  Adriatic  ports  ? 

Venice  and  Trieste  (Fig.  430)  are  important  Italian  sea- 
ports at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Venice  is  a  city 
built  on  more  than  one  hundred  islands.  Centuries  ago, 
when  barbarian  hordes  were  invading  Italy,  a  group  of 
people  fled  to  these  islands  for  safety.  Later  their  sailors 
proved  to  be  so  skillful  and  their  business  men  so  enter- 
prising that  much  of  the  travel  and  commerce  between 
Europe  and  Asia  went  through  Venice,  which  thus  grew 
to  be  a  prosperous  and  wealthy  city.  There  are  over  one 
hundred  canals  in  the  city  and  over  four  hundred  bridges. 
The  canals  take  the  place  of  streets,  and  boats  are  used 
instead  of  wagons  or  automobiles  (Fig.  432). 

Government.  Italy  is  a  limited,  or  constitutional,  mon- 
archy, and  the  ruler  is  a  king.  The  people  elect  a  large 
number  of  the  members  of  the  parliament  and  are  thus 
directly  represented  in  the  government  of  the  nation. 


Fig.  431.   Fiume  is  another  busy  seaport  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Adriatic 

Sea.   Fiume  is  now  an  independent  state,  but  the  port  and  the  railroads 

leading  to  it  are  governed  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  possible  for  the  people 

of  Jugoslavia  to  make  use  of  it  in  their  trade  by  sea  with  other  nations 


Foreign  possessions.  Eritrea,  Italian  Somali- 
land,  and  Libia,  which  are  in  Africa,  are  pos- 
sessions of  Italy  (p.  229).  Italy  also  administers 
the  affairs  of  a  small  region  on  the  northeast 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

San  Marino  is  the  smallest  and  oldest  repub- 
lic in  the  world.  It  contains  thirty-two  square 
miles  and  is  located  east  of  Florence  near  the 
Adriatic  Sea.  See  map  between  pages  207  and 
210,  F  2. 

The  Free  State  of  Fiume  is  located  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  between  Italy 
and  Jugoslavia  and  is  an  important  seaport. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Where  are  the 
lowlands  of  Italy  ?  2.  What  mountains  are  there  in 
Italy  ?  3.  Name  two  active  volcanoes  in  Italy.  Where 
are  they  located  ?  4.  In  what  part  of  Italy  is  irriga- 
tion practiced  ?  5.  What  large  islands  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  are  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  ? 

6.  Is  the  rainfall  heavier  on  the  mountains  or  on  the  lowlands  ? 
Why  ?  7.  Why  is  it  never  very  cold  in  Italy  except  in  the 
mountains  ?  8.  Why  have  most  of  the  people  of  Italy  become 
farmers  ?    9.  What  other  occupations  are  followed  ? 

10.  What  mineral  resources  are  there  in  Italy  and  the  neigh- 
boring Italian  islands  ?  11.  What  trees  are  commonly  raised 
in  this  country  ? 
What  tree  furnishes 
food  for  the  silk- 
worm ?  12.  In  what 
products  does  Italy 
take  leading  rank  ? 

13.  What  food 
manufactured  from 
wheat  is  shipped 
in  large  quantities 
from  Naples  to  the 
United  States? 

14.  From  what 
countries  is  wheat 
imported  by  Italy  ? 
15.  What  are  some 
of  the  other  imports 
of  Italy?  16.  What 
fruits  are  raised  in 
Italy? 

17.  What  form 
of  government  has 
Italy?  18.  Name 
five  Italian  cities 
and  tell  something 
of  interest  about 
each  one. 

19.  What  foreign  possessions  has  Italy  ?  20.  How  are  the 
hillsides  in  Italy  used  ?  21.  What  places  in  Italy  are  of  special 
historic  interest  ?    Why  ? 

Home  ivork.  1.  Read  a  description  of  the  Colosseum  and  one 
of  the  Forum  in  Rome.  2.  Read  a  description  of  the  destruction 
of  Pompeii  by  the  eruption  of  Mt.  Vesuvius. 


Fig.  432.  This  is  one  of  the  canals  or  water  streets 

of  Venice.  At  the  left  are  some  of  the  boats  known 

as  gondolas,  which  are  used  by  the  Venetians  in 

going  about  the  city 


JUGOSLAVIA 


213 


JUGOSLAVIA 

"Jugoslavia"  means  the  home  of  the  Southern  Slavs. 
These  people  speak  several  different  dialects,  but  they  have 
many  customs  and  interests  in  common.  They  are  organ- 
ized as  a  limited  monarchy  and  have  a  king  for  a  ruler. 

The  Dinaric  Alps  extend  into  Jugoslavia,  and  most  of 
the  land  is  rough  or  even  mountainous.  In  the  valleys 
there  are  some  lands  suitable  for  agriculture,  and  in  such 
places  rye,  oats,  barley,  and  corn  are  raised.  The  hill- 
sides are  used  for  planting  the  grapevine  and  for  grow- 
ing olive,  lemon,  orange,  and  mulberry  trees.    The  oak 


Fig.  433.  This  is  one  of  the  public  parks  in  Belgrade,  the  capital  of  Jugo- 
slavia. At  the  right  are  the  buildings  of  the  University  of  Belgrade.  At  the 
junction  of  what  two  rivers  is  Belgrade  situated  ?  What  advantages  for  trade 
can  you  see  in  its  location  ?  What  are  the  products  of  the  surrounding  country? 

and  beech  also  grow  on  these  hills,  and  hogs  are  fattened 
on  the  nuts  that  fall  to  the  ground.  On  the  higher  slopes 
of  the  mountains  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle  are  allowed  to 
graze.  Some  of  the  herdsmen  take  their  flocks  and  herds 
to  the  higher  pastures  in  summer  and  bring  them  into 
the  valleys  for  the  winter. 

The  forests  have  made  lumbering  possible.  Coal,  iron, 
lead,  silver,  and  gold  have  been  discovered,  but  as  yet 
little  mining  is  done. 

Belgrade,  located  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Danube 
River,  is  the  capital  and  chief  city  (Fig.  433).  Monastir 
is  the  principal  city  in  the  southern  part  of  Jugoslavia. 

By  means  of  the  Danube  River,  trade  may  be  carried 
on  very  easily  with  the  people  of  Austria,  Hungary, 
iind  Rumania.  The  valleys  of  the  Morava  and  Vardar 
rivers  form  the  best  north-and-south  route  of  travel,  and 
a  railroad  follows  this  route.  From  Belgrade  there  are 
railroad  connections  with  Constantinople  and  northwest 
to  the  Atlantic  and  North  Sea  countries.  Trade  with 
the  more  distant  parts  of  the  world  is  carried  on  by 
way  of  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  seas. 


Fig.  434.  These  Jugoslav  boys  and  girls  are  dressed  in  their  national  cos- 
tumes for  the  celebration  of  a  holiday.  The  official  name  of  their  country  is 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes,  from  the  three  principal 
groups  of  people  which  make  up  the  nation.  But  since  they  are  all  Jugo- 
slavs (Southern  Slavs),  their  country  is  commonly  called  Jugoslavia 

The  land  bordering  the  Adriatic  Sea  is  mountainous. 
Fiume  is  the  largest  city  on  this  coast ;  and  although  it 
is  not  within  the  boundaries  of  Jugoslavia,  the  Jugoslavs 
may  make  use  of  it  in  promoting  their  foreign  commerce. 
It  gives  them  a  good  outlet  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

These  people  do  very  little  manufacturing  and  there- 
fore must  exchange  their  fruits,  grains,  and  the  products 
from  their  flocks  and  herds  for  manufactured  goods. 

ALBANIA 

This  is  a  small,  mountainous  country  on  the  east  coast 
of  the  Adriatic  Sea  and  south  of  Jugoslavia  (Fig.  435). 
The  mild  climate  leads  to  the  cultivation  of  the  fruits 
that  grow  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  and  to  the  rais- 
ing of  some  grain.    Tirana  is  the  capital. 

Many  of  the  people  have  cattle  or  sheep  and  spend 
their  time  out  on  the  hillsides  with  their  flocks  or  herds. 


Fig.  435.   This  is  a  view  on  the  rocky  coast  of  Albania.   This  country  is  so 
mountainous  that  agriculture  is  possible  only  in  the  sheltered  valleys  be- 
tween the  hills.  Are  the  mountains  of  Albania  young  and  rugged  or  old  and 
worn  down  ?  What  are  the  occupations  of  the  people  ? 


214 


BULGARIA  AND  GREECE 


Fig.  436.  Most  of  the  large  rose  gardens  of  Bulgaria  are  located  on  the  shel- 
tered southern  slopes  of  the  Balkan  Mountains.  The  women  in  this  picture 
are  Bulgarian  peasants  at  work  picking  the  roses.    What  use  is  made  of 
these  roses  ?  What  are  the  chief  agricultural  products  of  Bulgaria  ? 

BULGARIA 

The  Balkan  Mountains  extend  from  east  to  west 
through  the  central  portion  of  Bulgaria.  To  the  north 
of  the  mountains  the  land  is  hilly  but  is  used  for  raising 
wheat  and  sugar  beets.  Much  of  the  mountain  country 
is  forested,  and  this  has  led  many  to  engage  in  lumber- 
ing. Cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are  allowed  to  graze  on 
the  hillsides  and  in  the  mountains. 

South  of  the  Balkan  Mountains  the  climate  is  very 
mild,  and  large  quantities  of  roses,  grapes,  and  plums 
are  raised.  The  rose  gardens  are  among  the  largest  in 
the  world,  and  the  blossoms  are  used  in  the  production 
of  attar  of  roses  (Fig.  436). 

Sofia  and  Philippopolis  are  on  the  railroad  from  Vienna 
to  Constantinople.  Sofia  is  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Bulgaria,  but  Philippopolis,  on  the  Maritza  River,  is  the 
largest  city  and  a  busy/industrial  and  commercial  center. 
Varna  is  the  chief  seaport.  Large  quantities  of  wheat 
and  other  grains  are  shipped  from  Varna  each  year. 


GREECE 

This  country  extends  so  far  south  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea  that  the  climate  is  always  mild.  During  the 
hot  summer  season  much  of  the  vegetation  withers,  and 
irrigation  is  necessary  to  secure  regular  crops.  On  the 
western  side  the  evergreen  trees  of  the  Mediterranean 
region  grow,  and  olive,  orange,  lemon,  fig,  and  mulberry 
trees  are  grown.  The  grapevine  grows  luxuriantly  in  this 


Publishers'  Pooh)  Service,  loo. 


Fig.  437.  This  is  a  street  scene  in  the  city  of  Corfu,  on  the  island  of  the  same 

name.   The  man  at  the  right  is  a  pottery  merchant.   He  piles  up  his  wares 

in  the  street  and  sells  them  to  the  passers-by.    Locate  Corfu  on  the  map 

between  pages  207  and  210.   To  what  country  does  the  island  belong  ? 


Fig.  438.   The  flat-topped  hill  which  rises  above  the  modern  city  of  Athens 

is  called  the  Acropolis  and  was  the  citadel,  or  fortress,  of  the  ancient  city. 

This  view  of  Athens  was  taken  from  the  Acropolis.   At  the  left  you  can  see 

the  ruins  of  one  of  the  beautiful  old  Greek  temples 

part  of  Greece.  Small,  seedless  grapes  are  produced  in 
abundance,  which,  when  dried,  are  known  as  currants. 

The  irregular,  indented  coast  line  and  the  many 
islands  of  Greece  favor  free  communication  between  the 
peoples  of  this  peninsula  and  those  of  the  other  coun- 
tries bordering  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The  ancient 
Greeks  carried  on  a  peaceful  commerce,  and  by  exchang- 
ing products  and  ideas  they  developed  into  a  nation  of 
unusually  strong  and  cultured  people.  Later  they  were 
conquered  by  the  Romans,  and  their  civilization  had  a 
great  influence  upon  the  Roman  customs. 

Athens,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece,  is  built 
about  the  base  of  a  tablelike  hill  (Fig.  438).  It  was  the 
center  of  the  ancient  Greek  civilization.  In  the  modern 
part  of  Athens  there  are  wide  streets  and  buildings 
much  like  those  of  other  European  capitals,  but  the  city 
is  rich  in  the  ruins  of  ancient  temples.  ■  Piraeus,  the  port 
for  Athens,  is  the  city  through  which  most  of  the  foreign 
commerce  of  Greece  is  carried  on.  In  the  northern  part 
of  the  country  is  the  important  port  of  Saloniki,  located 
at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  the  same  name.  Saloniki  is 
the  southern  terminus  for  the  railroad  which  runs  from 
Vienna  southward  through  Budapest  and  Belgrade  to 
the  ^Egean  Sea  (Fig.  439). 


TURKEY 


215 


s  Illustrating  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  439.  This  is  a  view  of  the  Greek  city  of  Saloniki.  The  picture  was  taken 
from  an  aeroplane.   At  the  right  you  can  see  one  of  the  wings  of  the  aero- 
plane, and  far  below  is  the  water  front  of  the  city.   The  little  white  spots 
at  the  left  are  boats  in  the  harbor 

TURKEY 

Only  a  small  part  of  Turkey  is  in  Europe.  The  rest  is 
in  Anatolia,  across  the  narrow  straits  of  the  Bosporus 
and  Dardanelles  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora. 

The  Turks  have  held  the  land  on  both  sides  of  the 
straits  for  centuries,  and  before  the  World  War  they 
could  prevent  the  ships  of  other  nations  from  passing 
through  this  important  waterway  whenever  they  wished. 

Since  the  World  War  the  Turks  have  promised  to 
allow  the  ships  of  all  nations  to  pass  freely  through  the 
straits  and  have  agreed  not  to  build  forts  or  mount  guns 
on  the  shores  and  islands  included  in  the  demilitarized 
zone.    See  map  between  p>ages  207  and  210. 

Turkey  in  Europe  has  good  farming  lands  in  the  river 
valleys,  where  tobacco  and  grain  are  raised. 


i£)  Underwood  It  Cnderwood 

Fig.  440.  This  is  a  view  of  Constantinople  from  the  north.  The  city  is  very 

old.    It  was  founded  by  the  Greeks  six  hundred  and  fifty  years  before  the 

birth  of  Christ.   Later  it  was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  and  finally  it  fell 

into  the  possession  of  the  Turks 

Constantinople,  the  largest  city  of  Turkey,  owes  its 
growth  to  its  location  at  the  point  where  the  land  route 
from  Europe  to  Asia  crosses  the  water  route  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  Mediterranean  (Figs.  440,  441). 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  countries  are  included 
in  the  Balkan  Peninsula  ?  2.  Describe  briefly  the  physical  fea- 
tures of  these  countries.  3.  What  are  the  chief  natural  resources 
and  to  what  occupations  have  they  led?  4.  What  other  natural 
resources  await  development  ? 

5.  What  products  have  the  people  of  these  countries  to  export  ? 

6.  Why  are  these  countries  not  great  manufacturing  centers  ? 

7.  In  what  Balkan  country  are  large  quantities  of  roses  raised? 

8.  What  city  in  Greece  was  the  center  of  an  ancient  civilization  ? 
9.  Name  and  locate  the  capital  of  each  of  the  Balkan  countries. 

10.  What  people  have  possession  of  the  city  of  Constantinople  ? 

11.  Why  should  the  Bosporus,  the    Sea  of  Marmora,  and  the 
Dardanelles  be  kept  open  for  the  use  of  ships  of  all  nations  ? 


Courcesj  of  Williams,  Brown,  mini  iiarlc 


Fig.  441.  The  harbor  at  Constantinople  is  a  very  busy  place.  Steamships 
from  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Black  Sea  may  be  seen  loading  and  unload- 
ing their  cargoes.  In  the  small  boats  are  the  boatmen  who  earn  their  living  by 
carrying  passengers  ashore.  Constantinople  is  located  at  the  meeting  point 


of  two  seas  and  two  continents.  What  are  the  two  seas  ?  the  two  continents? 
Why  is  such  a  location  of  great  commercial  importance  ?  From  what  Black 
Sea  ports  may  some  of  the  ships  in  this  view  have  come  ?  What  nations 
depend  upon  the  use  of  the  straits  at  Constantinople  for  their  trade  by  sea  ? 


216 


COMPARATIVE  MAP  STUDIES 


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AFRICA 


INTRODUCTION 


Little  by  little  the  lands  and  the  waters  of  the  earth 
have  been  explored.  See  Appendix,  Plate  A.  The  nations 
of  Europe  wanted  more  land 
where  their  people  could 
go  and  settle.  They  needed 
more  raw  materials  for  their 
great  factories,  and  new 
markets  for  their  manu- 
factured goods.  Most  of 
Africa  has  now  come  into 
the  possession  of  European 
powers. 

Size  and  position.  Africa 
is  the  second  largest  conti- 
nent in  the  world.  See  map 
on  page  275.  It  is  about 
5000  miles  long  and  is  three 
times  the  size  of  Europe. 
At  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
Africa   is    separated    from 

Europe  by  just  nine  miles  of  water,  and  at  the  Strait  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb,  or  Gate  of  Tears,  it  is  only  14  miles  from 
Asia.  The  connection  with  Asia  at  the  Isthmus  of  Suez 
was  complete  until  the  great  Suez  Canal  was  constructed 
(Fig.  443).  Up  to  that  time  European  ships  had  to  go 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  reach  India  (Fig.  442). 

Exploration.  The  location  of  Africa  was  known  long 
before  North  or  South  America  was  discovered,  but  the 
two  western  continents  were  explored  and  settled  long 
before  much  of  Africa  had  been  even  seen  by  white  men. 

Africa  is  a  diffi- 
cult land  to  ex- 
plore. The  coast 
line  is  regular  and 
there  are  few  good 
harbors.  See  map 
opposite  page  230. 
Most  of  the  rivers 
have  falls  or  rapids 
near  their  mouths, 
which  make  it  dif- 
ficult to  get  into 
the  country,  for 
explorers  usually 
enter  a  country 
by  the  rivers. 


Fig.  442.   In  this  view  you  can  see  the  southwest  tip  of  Africa  near  the 

Cape  of  Good  Hope.   The  cape  was  discovered  in  1487  by  the  Portuguese 

explorer,  Diaz.    He  met  such  terrible  gales  here  that  he  called  it  the 

Stormy  Cape,  but  later  a  Portuguese  king  gave  it  its  present  name 


D  Pvbiubers'  Photo  Service,  loo. 

Fig.  443.   The  Suez  Canal  was  cut  through  the  isthmus  between  Asia  and  Africa  to  connect  the 

Mediterranean  Sea  with  the  Red  Sea.    It  was  opened  in  1869  and  is  ninety-eight  miles  long. 

To  what  countries  of  the  world  is  it  of  the  greatest  benefit  ?    See  Appendix,  Plate  B 

217 


Furthermore,  those  who  tried  to  reach  the  interior 
encountered  many  wild  tribes  of  natives,  and  in  portions 

of  the  country  they  found 
hot,  damp,  malarial  condi- 
tions. On  the  north  the 
Sahara  is  a  barrier  to  travel, 
and  near  the  equator  is  a 
tropical  jungle,  which  is 
one  of  the  most  difficult 
places  in  the  world  to  ex- 
plore. The  .  large  animals 
and  the  many  injurious  in- 
sects of  Africa  have  also 
helped  to  make  that  con- 
tinent the  least  attractive 
to  the  traveler,  and  as  long 
as  there  was  opportunity 
for  acquiring  land  in  the 
Americas,  little  was  done  to 
colonize  Africa. 
People.  In  northern  Africa  the  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
descendants  of  Arabian  people  who  migrated  westward 
from  Asia,  or  of  European  people  who  crossed  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  to  settle  in  this  continent.  These  northern 
people,  with  the  exception  of  the  Turks,  belong  to  the 
white  race.  The  Turks  are  of  Mongolian  descent  and 
belong  to  the  yellow  race.  The  native  people  of  Abys- 
sinia belong  to  the  white  race.  They  are  large,  strong, 
liberty-loving  people,  who  in  their  mountain  country 
have  maintained  their  independence  even  to  this  day. 

Nearly  all  the 
negro  people  of 
Africa  live  in  the 
equatorial  region 
or  farther  south. 
The  negroes  are 
the  best  laborers  in 
the  tropical  coun- 
tries, for  white 
men  are  not  able 
to  live  and  work 
hard  for  many 
years  in  the  hot, 
damp  parts  of  the 
earth.  The  negroes 
should  be  trained 


20°  LongiB  tude        10"  West  C 


10°  Longi'Etuie       20° Bast   F     from   30° Green Q wich       40° 


50° 


SEYCHELLES  IS. 


20? i   I 

L'HITIDS  lT7T 


Comparative  Area  / 


10°  Longi'Etude      20°  East  F  /rom   30°  Green  Qwich      40° 


>  (i in n  and  Company 


MAP  STUDIES 


219 


in  better  ways  of  living  and  in  modern  methods  of  work. 
They  will  become  more  and  more  important  to  the  country 
as  greater  development  is 
undertaken. 

In  the  grasslands  south 
of  the  Sahara  the  native 
people  have  passed  beyond 
the  hunting  stage  in  their 
development  and  raise  cat- 
tle or  cultivate  the  soil. 
Those  who  have  farms  es- 
tablish fixed  homes,  while 
those  who  own  cattle  wan- 
der about.  The  occupation 
of  a  people  often  affects 
their  ways  of  living.  In 
this  semiarid  region  mem- 
bers of  the  same  race  be- 
come wanderers  if  they  take 
care  of  cattle,  and  become 


Dutch,  British,  or  Portuguese.    On  the  coast  to  the 
north  and  east  of  Abyssinia  the  Italians  have  established 

two  colonies,  and  between 
these  colonies  there  is  a 
small  British  colony. 

Home  work.  Read  about  the 
Pygmies,  Bushmen,  Hottentots, 
and  Zulus  and  report  to  the 
class. 


Fig.  444.  These  are  the  Victoria  Falls  in  the  Zambezi  River.  They  are 
twice  as  high  as  Niagara,  and  the  amount  of  water  pouring  over  them  is 
much  greater.  Some  day  these  falls  will  be  harnessed,  and  the  electric  power 
from  them  will  run  railroads,  factories,  and  mines  hundreds  of  miles  away 


settled  if  they  have  farms. 

There  still  remain  in  Africa  several  tribes  of  native 
people  who  are  savages.  They  inhabit  the  forests  and 
live  by  hunting  and  fishing. 

The  Pygmies,  who  are  true  forest-dwellers,  live  in 
the  Congo  jungle.  A  full-grown  man  is  about  four  feet 
high.  They  are  hunters,  and  because  of  their  small 
bodies  can  move  about  in  the  dense  undergrowth, 
hunting  big  game  more  easily  than  larger  people  could. 
They  barter  the  game  for  fruit  raised  by  those  who  dwell 
in  the  clearings.  The  Pygmies  are  related  to  the  Bush- 
men of  South  Africa,  who  are  also  great  hunters.  The 
Zulus  and  Kafirs  form  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
native  population  in  the  plateau  region  of  South  Africa. 

In  each  of  the 
colonies  of  European 
nations  there  are 
many  people  from 
the  home  '  country, 
and  the  number  of 
white  people  of  Euro- 
pean descent  along 
the  Mediterranean 
coast  and  in  South 
Africa  is  constantly 
increasing.  A  great 
many  French  and 
Italian  people  h^ve 
settled  in  North 
Africa,  but  in  South 
Africa  most  of  the 
European  people  are 


Fig.  445.  The  Sahara  Desert  covers  two  million  square  miles  in  northern  Africa.  Over  large 
areas  it  is  a  sea  of  sand,  piled  by  the  wind  into  dunes  which  look  like  waves.   The  sandy 
waste  is  broken  in  some  places  by  green  oases  and  in  others  by  bare,  rocky  hills  and  moun- 
tains.  The  desert  is  crossed  only  by  the  camel-train  routes 


MAP  STUDIES 

1.  Where  does  Africa  come 
nearest  to  Asia?  2.  What 
is  the  name  of  the  canal  which 
has  been  cut  through  that 
isthmus  ?  3.  Describe  the* 
Nile,  Niger,  Congo,  and  Zam- 
bezi rivers  with  respect  to 
their  navigability.  What  un- 
usual features  do  you  find  ? 
4.  From  what  highlands  do 
many  of  the  headwaters  of  the 
Nile  come?  5.  Explain  the  lack  of  tributaries  in  the  lower 
course  of  the  Nile.  6.  What  mountains  are  at  the  northwest 
margin  of  the  continent  ? 

7.  What  is  the  general  elevation  of  the  plateaus  of  South 
Africa  ?  How  do  they  compare  in  elevation  with  the  Sahara 
Tableland  ?  8.  Locate  one  great  delta  in  Africa.  9.  What 
large  city  is  on  this  delta? 

10.  How  does  the  amount  of  lowland  in  Africa  compare 
with  that  of  other  continents  ?  11.  Name  the  chief  natural 
regions.  12.  Where  are  the  highest  mountains?  13.  Where 
are  the  great  lakes  in  Africa? 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  nations  helped  in  the 
early  exploration  of  Africa  ?  2.  What  nations  now  have  posses- 
sions in  Africa  ?  3.  Of  what  value  are  these  colonies  to  European 

nations  ?  4.  Why  was  it 
difficult  to  explore  the  in- 
terior of  this  continent  ? 

5.  Who  were  the  chief 
explorers  of  the  interior  ? 

6.  In  what  part  of  Africa 
do  most  of  the  native 
tribes  of  negroes  live  ? 

7.  Where  do  most  of  the 
white  people  live  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Look 
up  the  lengths  of  the 
Suez  and  Panama  canals. 
When  was  each  one 
opened  ?  2.  Read  about 
Stanley's  travels  in 
Africa.  3.  Read  about 
Livingstone's  travels  in 
Africa.  4.  Find  out  what 
you  can  about  the  Cape- 
to-Cairo  Railway. 


220 


NATURAL  REGIONS 


The  plateaus  of  South  Africa  have  a  general  elevation 
of  from  3000  to  4000  feet.  There  are  parts  where  the 
elevation  is  as  high  as  5000  feet,  and  small  mountain 
ranges  in  the  plateau  region  rise  still  higher.  On  the 
western  margin,  and  well  shown  on  the  map  opposite 
page  230,  there  is  a  bold  escarpment,  or  cliff,  bordering 
the  coast.  To  Europeans  who  intend  to  become  per- 
manent settlers  in  Africa  these  plateaus  are  more 
attractive  than  almost  any  other  part  of  the  continent. 


©  Underwood  k  Underwood 


Fig.  446.   This  is  Kouinine,  an  old  Saharan  town  of  Algeria.    The  picture 

is  taken  from  an  aeroplane.   Beyond  the  town  you  can  see  the  groups  of 

palm  trees  which  have  grown  up  in  the  hollows  between  the  sand  dunes. 

Far  in  the  distance  stretches  the  sandy  waste  of  the  Sahara 

Natural  Regions 

Coastal  lowlands.  Africa  has  very  little  lowland.  The 
lowland  areas  are  near  the  coast,  and  most  of  them  are 
hot  and  unhealthful.    See  map  on  page  218. 

The  Sahara  Tableland  is  nearly  as  large  as  Europe, 
and  it  is  the  largest  continuous  desert  in  the  world. 
It  varies  from  600  to  3000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  much 
lower  in  the  west  than  in  the  east,  and  the  Tibesti  Moun- 
tains in  the  central  part  of  the  tableland  rise  8000  feet 
above  sea  level.  Much  of  it  is  a 
vast,  stony  waste,  but  in  portions 
sand  is  abundant  (Figs.  445,  446). 
See  map  opposite  page  230.  In  the 
east  the  Nile  crosses  the  desert,  and 
bordering  the  river  there  is  a  long, 
fertile  oasis.  Where  there  are  springs 
or  wells  that  furnish  waters  for  irri- 
gating the  land  there  are  other  oases 
in  the  desert. 

Besides  those  people  who  live  on 
the  oases  in  the  desert  there  are  many 
who  travel  from  one  oasis  to  another 
as  traders.  They  are  chiefly  Arabs, 
and  they  have  several  well-established 
caravan  routes  (Figs.  447,  449). 

The  Atlas  Mountains  are  much  like 
the  mountains  of  southern  Europe. 
They  are  young  and  rugged.  Some 
of  their  peaks  rise  to  a  height  of 
over  14,000  feet.  They  are  folded 
mountains  with  parallel  ranges,  be- 


V  v"y>-ay 

gasp"-*' 

lr^ 
'-****" 

%V          -A 

V 

0%*;  x 

©  Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  448.   This  is  the  volcanic  peak  of  Mt.  Kili- 
manjaro.   Locate  this  peak  on  your  map.    What 
is  its  elevation  ?  Are  the  mountains  in  this  region 
young  and  rugged  or  old  and  worn-down  ? 


tween  which  there  are  rich  valley  lands  where  most  of         When  the  sun 

the  people  in  this  part  of  the  country  make  their  homes,     the  northern  summer,  the  equatorial  rainy  belt  follows 


Fig.  447.   These  Arab  traders  have  pitched  their  tents  on  the  edge  of  one 

of  the  oases  in  the  Sahara  Desert.   They  will  stay  here  long  enough  to  do 

their  trading  with  the  inhabitants  of  the  oasis,  and  then  they  will  move 

on  to  the  next  one.   What  do  you  think  they  buy  and  sell  ? 

The  Abyssinian  Highlands  and  the  Southern  Highlands. 
The  Abyssinian  Highlands  include  a  mountainous  and 
heavily  forested  region.  Most  of  the 
summits  are  from  5000  to  14,000  feet 
high.  A  little  farther  south  there 
is  a  group  of  lofty  volcanic  peaks. 
Kilimanjaro  (Fig.  448)  and  Kenya 
are  in  this  group.  To  the  north  of 
Lake  Edward  is  Mt.  Ruwenzori,  one 
of  the  highest  peaks  in  Africa. 

The  Southern  Highlands  are  com- 
posed of  several  small  ranges  with 
plateaulike  areas  between  the  ranges. 
The  Drakensberg  is  the  most  con- 
spicuous range. 


Climate 

Most  of  Africa  is  too  hot  for 
white  people.  It  does  not  extend  far 
enough  north  or  south  of  the  equator 
to  have  much  land  in  the  temperate 
zones.  The  only  relief  from  the  con- 
tinuous heat  is  found  in  the  moun- 
tains or  in  the  higher  plateaus, 
appears  to  move  northward  during 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 


221 


•    -.. 

^Hi 

"T^  --*^ 

-mA 

jLy-   '■■ 

1.     ^^^ 

M    Bitfl^K;jii  *  Mi 

|:  " 

it^s 

BFifjSEAat 

s/ 1 

'• 

5  —  '     . 

- 

■ 

Fig.  449.  This  caravan  of  camels  is  starting  on  its  journey  across  the  desert. 

The  Arabs  are  very  fond  of  their  faithful  camels  and  treat  them  kindly. 

In  the  distance  are  the  mountains  of  Algeria,  which  border  the  desert. 

Where  do  you  think  this  caravan  is  going,  and  why  ? 

the  apparent  movement  of  the  sun,  and  the  lands  be- 
tween the  equator  and  the  Sahara  have  a  rainy  season. 

The  prevailing  winds  in  the  Sahara  are  the  northeast 
trades.  As  they  come  chiefly  from  land  areas,  they  have 
very  little  moisture,  and  as  they  blow  toward  the  equator 
they  become  warmer  and  tend  to  take  up  more  moisture. 
This  is  why  there  is  such  a  great  desert  in  northern  Africa. 

When  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  strike  farther  south 
and  the  sun  appears  to  go  south,  the  rainy  belt  moves  in 
that  direction  also,  and  the  great  Congo  basin,  which  gets 
more  or  less  heavy  rain  throughout  the  year,  is  abun- 
dantly watered.  Near  the  equator  rain  falls  nearly  eveiy 
day.  Even  the  lands  a  little  farther  south  receive  heavy 
rains.  Still  farther  south,  winds  bring  an  abundance 
of  rain  to  the  southeast  coast,  but  leave  the  southern 
interior  and  southwest  coast  dry.    See  map  on  page  230. 

Vegetation  and  Animal  Life 

There  is  a  great  likeness  between  the  plants  found 
in  northern  Africa  and  those  found  in  southern  Europe. 
The  continents  were  formerly  connected,  and  seeds  were 
blown  from  one  land  to  the  other. 
Oaks,  olive  trees,  vines,  figs,  and 
many  of  our  common  cereals  are 
found  growing  here.  Farther  south, 
beyond  the  great  desert  barrier,  are 
the  savanna  lands  and  the  tropical 
forest,  where  the  plant  and  animal 
life  is  very  different  from  that  in 
the  north.  See  map  opposite  page  230. 
Among  the  animals  found  on  the 
savannas  are  ostriches,  elephants, 
zebras,  buffaloes,  giraffes,  antelopes, 
and  rhinoceroses.  In  the  jungles 
there  are  fierce  beasts  of  prey,  such 
as   the   lion,    panther,    and    hyena. 


The  dense  tropical  forest  in  the  Congo  basin  has  two 
layers.  From  the  thick  undergrowth  on  the  ground,  con- 
stituting the  lower  layer,  the  tall  trees  reach  up  for  light 
and  air.  They  have  few  branches  except  near  the  top, 
and  there  the  branches  are  intertwined  with  growing 
vines  and  other  clinging  plants,  until  a  canopy  is  made 
so  dense  that  even  when  the  sun  is  bright  the  interior 
of  the  forest  is  dark.  Many  of  the  most  brilliantly  colored 
birds  and  butterflies  live  in  this  upper  story  where  the 
sun  shines,  but  in  the  lower  story  are  the  huge  beasts 
that  wander  about  and  prowl  into  the  Sudan  to  prey 
upon  the  grass-eating  animals. 

The  Sudan  district,  extending  east  and  west  just 
north  of  the  tropical  forest,  is  a  savanna  type  of  coun- 
try. Cattle-raising  and  some  farming  are  being  under- 
taken here.  South  of  the  tropical  forest  is  another 
savanna,  and  still  farther  south  is  another  desert.  See 
map  opposite  page  230. 

Natural  Resources 

Use  map  on  page  227.  So  vast  a  land  as  Africa  must 
of  course  have  much  in  it  which  is  of  value  to  man. 
Those  portions  that  can  be  cultivated  have  been  found 
to  contain  rich  soils.  In  the  mountains  gold,  silver,  lead, 
tin,  and  copper  have  been  discovered,  and  there  is  coal 
and  oil  in  several  localities.  Some  of  the  water-power  is 
being  used,  but  there  are  many  other  sites  where  water- 
power  may  be  developed.  In  the  south  (in.  the  plateau 
district)  and  along  the  west  coast  the  most  brilliant 
diamonds  in  the  world  are  obtained  (Fig.  450). 

The  tropical  forest  of  central  Africa,  like  that  of 
South  America,  yields  rubber.  There  are  mahogany  and 
many  other  valuable  trees  in  the  forest,  but  the  woods 
are  not  as  yet  in  common  use,  because  it  is  difficult  to 
get  them  to  market.  The  elephants  of  the  jungle  are 
being  killed  rapidly  by  the  native  people  for  their  ivory 
tusks  which  form  a  valuable  export  product  (Fig.  451). 


Fig.  450.  Down  in  the  Kimberley  diamond  mines 
the  natives  load  the  diamond-bearing  earth  into 
little  cars.  The  cars  are  then  hoisted  to  the  sur- 
face, where  the  gems  are  separated  from  the  dirt 


(£)  Kejstona  View  Co. 

Fig.  451.  These  ivory  tusks  are  ready  for  export 
from  Mombasa.  The  elephants  are  hunted  in  the 
African  jungle,  and  their  tusks  brought  out  by 
native  porters.  Each  tusk  weighs  about  50  pounds 


222 


EGYPT 


'"T'ili'^T'i  A  \Li 

A'A'4',t'i  {7s* 

,::    .- 

**TvvTt.^'^» 

-— IT" 

... 

JU  t^^ 

1 

R'taaiW 

1  ' 

Courtesy  of  Eugene  J.  Ball 

Fig.  452.  Here  are  three  water  carriers  of  Cairo. 

Over  their  backs  are  slung  the  heavy  goatskins 

filled  with  water  which  they  peddle  about  the 

streets  of  the  city 


)  Publishers'  Pboto  Service.  Inc. 

Fig.  453.  Cairo  is  the  chief  center  of  Mohammedan 

teaching.   At  the  end  of  this  old  arched  street 

you  can  see  the  Mohammedan  University,  which 

was  founded  in  the  year  988 


Copal,  which  is  shipped  from  Banana,  is  a  resin  that 
comes  from  certain  of  the  trees  of  the  forest  and  is 
used  in  making  varnishes. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  "Why  is  Africa  so  warm  ? 
2.  Where  are  the  coolest  places  ?  3.  Explain  the  little  rainfall  in 
the  Sahara.    4.  What  conditions  produce  dense  tropical  forests  ? 

5.  In  which  other  continent  is  there  a  large  tropical  forest? 

6.  Describe  a  tropical  forest. 

7.  What  use  is  made  of  the  grasslands  of  Africa  ?  8.  Why  may 
the  Sahara  be  thought  of  as  a  barrier  to  both  plants  and  animals  ? 
9.  What  are  the  chief  natural  resources  of  the  mountain  and  plateau 
portions  ?  10.  What  useful  products  are  obtained  from  the  forests  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Find  out  how  the  native  people  collect  and  pre- 
pare the  crude  rubber.  Report  to  the  class.  2.  Read  about  the  way 
the  people  live  who  work  in  the  diamond  mines  near  Kimberley. 


Publiabere'  Photo  Service,  Inc. 


Fig.  455.   This  is  the  great  Nile  Bridge  at  Cairo.  It  is  a  modern  steel  struc- 
ture nearly  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long.   Automobiles,  carriages,  trolley  cars, 
and  bicycles  are  in  common  use  in  Cairo  to-day,  but  many  of  the  natives 
still  ride  on  camels,  just  as  their  ancestors  did  years  ago 


Fig.  454.    These  people  are  climbing  the  Great 

Pyramid   near  Cairo.    This  pyramid   was  built 

more  than  3000  years  before  Christ  as  a  tomb  for 

a  great  Egyptian  ruler 

EGYPT 

During  the  World  War  Egypt,  which  was  formerly- 
controlled  by  the  Turks,  became  a  British  protectorate. 
In  1922  the  protectorate  was  withdrawn  and  Egypt 
became  a  free  state  with  a  native  king. 

Egypt  is  of  special  interest  because  of  its  early  civili- 
zation and  the  frequent  references  to  the  land  of  the 
Nile  in  Biblical  writings.  The  early  people  who  lived  in 
the  lower  valley  of  the  Nile  had  the  advantage  of  rich 
soils  and  a  Avarm  climate.  They  were  shut  off  from 
hostile  tribes  by  desert  barriers  and  the  sea.  In  those 
days  invading  tribes  did  not  travel  by  water.  Agri- 
culture, education,  and  science  were  promoted  by  the 
early  Egyptians,  and  they  built  the  wonderful  pyramids 
(Fig.  454).  Persian  tribes  later  pushed  westward  and  con- 
quered Egypt,  and  the  Arabians,  Greeks,  and  Romans 
each  took  *a  turn  at  invading  this  rich  land  of  the  Nile. 

To-day  there  are  over  12,000,000  people  living  here. 
Almost  all  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  especially  those 
of  southern  Europe,  are  represented.  At  the  head  of  the 
great  delta  of  the  Nile  stands  Cairo,  the  capital  of  Egypt 
and  the  largest  city  in  Africa  (Figs.  452,  453,  455). 
Alexandria,  the  second  largest  city  in  Africa,  is  a  com- 
mercial center  with  many  modern  conveniences. 

The  great  cotton  plantations  that  have  made  the  Nile 
country  famous  are  on  the  delta  and  flood  plain  of  the 
river.  Egyptian  cotton  has  a  very  long  fiber  and  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  our  best  cotton  goods. 

Each  year  the  Nile  overflows  its  banks  and  waters 
the  broad,  flat  lands  bordering  the  stream  (Fig.  456). 


BRITISH  POSSESSIONS 


223 


The  flooding  of  the  Nile  is  due  to  the  very  heavy  rains 
that  fall  during  the  northern  summer  at  its  sources. 
The  flood  comes  usually  in  July,  providing  water  for 
the  agricultural  lands  along  the  stream,  but  in  years 
when  there  is  less  rainfall  than  usual  extensive  irri- 
gation must  be  practiced.  The  British  government  has 
built  a  great  dam  at  Aswan  to  conserve  the  waters  of 
the  Nile  for  irrigation  purposes. 

Home  work.  1.  Look  up  the  subject  of  irrigation  in  Egypt. 
2.  Find  out  all  you  can  about  the  pyramids  of  Egypt. 

BRITISH  POSSESSIONS 

The  British  have  control  of  about  one  third  of  the 
continent  of  Africa.  The  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  has 
been  under  British  control  since  1899.  South  of  the 
Sudan  is  British  East  Africa,  which  borders  the  Indian 


feitff^ 

Wi/__ 

WT 

^§*  j 

V\m\\ 

(IqliiMiiiiiii 

--V2               •            :  * 

Fig.  456.  This  is  a  view  on  the  delta  of  the  Nile  near  Cairo.  In  the  distance 

are  the  pyramids.   The  ancient  Egyptians  worshiped  the  goddess  of  the 

Nile  as  the  giver  of  all  good  things.   Can  you  explain  why  the  Nile  was  so 

important  to  them  that  it  became  the  center  of  their  religion  ? 

land  is  a  hot,  wet,  unhealthful  place.   Only  natives  can 
Ocean.     Still  farther  south  are  Nyasaland,   Rhodesia,    work  here.    They  raise  rice,  sugar,  sweet  potatoes,  and 


Bechuanaland,  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  Swaziland, 
and  Basutoland.  The  British  also  have  lands  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa.  These  are  Nigeria,  the  Gold  Coast, 
Sierra  Leone,  and  Gambia.  In  addition,  the  British 
control  part  of  Somaliland  and 
several  islands  off  the  African 
coast. 

Home  work.  On  an  outline  map 
of  Africa,  shade  or  color  the  British 
possessions.  Add  their  names.  Use 
map  on  page  227. 


Anglo-Egyptian    Sudan.    In 

this  district  cotton  is  raised. 
Ostrich  feathers,  dates,  and 
rubber  are  brought  into  the 
chief  city,  Khartum,  for  ship- 
ment. This  is  one  of  the  cities 
of  Africa  from  which  the  great 
supplies  of  gum  arabic  and 
ivory  are  exported. 

Somaliland.  This  little  pro- 
tectorate on  the  Gulf  of  Aden 
is  a  pasture  land.  It  is  a  low- 
land, and  there  is  little  rain- 
fall, so  the  people  are  obliged 
to  move  about  in  order  to  take 
proper  care  of  their  stock. 

British  East  Africa.  This 
area  includes  Kenya  Colony, 
Uganda,  Tanganyika  Territory 
(formerly  German  East  Africa), 
and  the  protectorate  of  Zan- 
zibar.   The  narrow  coastal  low- 


@  iiino  lad  Company 

Fig.  457.  This  drawing  shows  the  troughlike  valley  of  the  Nile  and 
the  great  fan-shaped  delta  at  its  mouth.  This  valley  is  the  most 
densely  populated  part  of  Africa.  Why  do  so  many  people  live  here  ? 
Contrast  their  life  with  that  of  the  desert  people  to  the  east  and  west 


other  crops.  The  dense  forests  near  the  coast  produce 
rubber.  Farther  inland,  on  the  plateau,  the  climate 
is  more  agreeable,  and  grains,  cotton,  coffee,  and  a 
large  variety  of   crops   are  raised  by  native    laborers 

under  European  supervision. 
The  railroads  from  Mombasa 
to  Kisumu,  on  Lake  Victoria, 
and  from  Dar  es  Salam  to  Ki- 
goma,  on  Lake  Tanganyika, 
have  helped  greatly  to  develop 
this  region. 

Southern  possessions.  The 
British  possessions  in  South 
Africa  lie  for  the  most  part 
in  the  high  plateaus  or  in 
the  Southern  Highlands.  See 
map  on  page  218. 

In  the  north,  in  what  is 
known  as  Rhodesia,  the  plateau 
is  an  extensive  grassland  which 
is  used  for  the  grazing  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats.  Farther  south, 
in  the  interior,  is  the  protec- 
torate of  Bechuanaland,  much  of 
which  is  included  in  the  semi- 
desert  of  Kalahari,  where  the 
rainfall  is  so  light  that  little 
vegetation  can  grow.  Here  the 
population  is  very  sparse. 

The  rains  that  do  come  to 
this  region  come  in  the  sum- 
mer months  of  November, 
December,  and  January.  Then 
the  grasses  and  flowers  spring 


224 


BRITISH  POSSESSIONS 


The  Southern  Highlands  and  the  southeast  coastal 
belts  receive  an  abundance  of  rain,  for  the  southeast 
trade  winds  that  blow  over  the  Indian  Ocean  reach  this 
region  and  are  forced  to  give  up  moisture. 

Along  the  coast  sugar  cane,  bananas,  pineapples,  and 
rice  are  raised.  On  the  higher  lands  tea  and  coffee  are 
grown,  and  in  places   among   the  mountains  and  on 


Fig.  458.   Cape  Town  is  the  chief  port  of  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  In 

the  background  the  rugged  cliffs  of  Table  Mountain  rise  more  than  3000 

feet  above  the  city.  When  the  white  clouds  drift  over  its  summit,  the  people 

say  it  has  its  tablecloth  on.   The  harbor  is  off  to  the  left 

up  so  suddenly  that  the  whole  landscape  is  changed  as 
if  by  magic.  After  the  rainy  season  is  passed,  the  grasses 
dry  and  the  landscape  appears  gray.  The  dried  grass  be- 
comes a  standing  hay,  and  much  of  it  about  the  margin 
of  the  desert  is  eaten  by  cattle,  sheep,  or  goats. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  plateau,  at  elevations  of 
4000  feet  or  over,  the  summer  temperature  is  seldom 
over  90°  F.  in  the  shade,  while  the  nights  are  always  cool 
throughout  the  year.   During  the  winter  months  of  May,     the  neighboring  plateau  where  irrigation  is  practiced 


Fig.  459.   The  native  Kafirs  of  South  Africa  live  in  beehive-shaped  houses. 

They  are  low  and  are  built  of  thin  poles  interwoven  with  grass.   This  view 

shows  two  of  these  houses.  The  one  without  a  roof  is  not  a  house  but  a 

corral  for  the  cattle  which  belong  to  the  family 


June,  and  July  the  nights  are  frosty  and  the  days  are 
warm  and  clear. 

Here  four  provinces,  the  Transvaal,  Natal,  Orange  Free 
State,  and  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  have  been  joined  together, 
and  they  now  form  the  Union  of  South  Africa.  The  gov- 
ernment of  this  Union  is  similar  to  that  of  Canada, 
and  the  people  have  about 
as  much  freedom  and  inde- 
pendence as  in  a  republic. 

This  portion  of  South 
Africa  is  well  suited  to 
white  people,  and  it  is  the 
part  where  great  mineral 
wealth  has  been  discovered. 
Here  the  settlers  are  pro- 
gressive. Railways,  trolley 
lines,  automobiles,  tele- 
phones, telegraphs,  elec- 
trical appliances,  and  all 
modern  conveniences  have 
been  introduced.  We  may 
expect  a  more  rapid  devel- 
opment in  this  part  of 
Africa  than  in  any  other 
portion   of   the   continent. 


Fig.  460.  Inside  the  Kafir  house  you  can  see  the  stout  poles  which  support 

the  roof,  and  the  round  fireplace  with  its  three-legged  kettle  for  cooking 

the  family  meals.  At  the  back  are  the  sleeping  mats,  the  dishes,  and  the 

pumpkins  which  the  Kafirs  raise  and  eat  in  great  numbers 


general  farming  and  dairying  are  carried  on. 

The  pastures  of  the  Southern  Highlands  are  used  for 

raising  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  ostriches. 

Johannesburg,  which  is  in  the  Transvaal,  is  a  modern 

city  located  on  the  plateau  in  the  midst  of  the  richest 

gold-pi'oducing    area    of    the    world    (Figs.  461,  462). 

Kimberley,  a  little  farther 
south,  is  famous  for  the 
wonderfully  clear  and  beau- 
tiful diamonds  that  are 
found  near  there.  Copper, 
tin,  and  coal  are  also  found 
near  these  mining  centers. 
Cape  Town  (Fig.  458),  the 
chief  port  of  South  Africa, 
is  the  southern  terminus  of 
the  railway  which  will  run 
through  t6  Cairo  when  com- 
pleted. Pretoria  is  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Union  of  South 
Africa.  Port  Elizabeth  is  an 
important  port  (Fig.  463). 
Th  e  Union  of  South  Africa 
governs  Southwest  Africa,  a 
former  German  colony. 


FRENCH  POSSESSIONS 


225 


The  Cape-to-Cairo  Railroad  will  be  nearly  7000  miles 
long  when  it  is  completed.  More  than  half  of  this  great 
railroad  has  already  been  built,  and  most  of  it  will  lie 
entirely  within  territory  under  British  control. 

West  Coast  possessions.  These  possessions  include 
Nigeria  and  the  Gold  Coast  on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and 
Sierra  Leone  and  Gambia  farther  west.   Each  one  of  them 


Fig.  461.   Johannesburg  is  in  the  gold  district  of  South  Africa.  Thirty  years 

ago  it  was  little  more  than  a  huddle  of  tumbledown  miners'  huts.    To-day 

it  is  a  prosperous  city  with  broad  streets  and  beautiful  buildings.   Locate 

Johannesburg  on  your  map.   What  is  the  cause  of  its  rapid  growth  ? 

is  of  real  value  to  the  British  people.  The  ports  are 
open  to  vessels  from  all  nations,  but  very  naturally  the 
trade  with  England  is  greater  than  that  with  any  other 
country. 

These  lands  are  inhabited  chiefly  by  negroes.  The  num- 
ber of  white  people  is  very  small,  but  they  hold  the  im- 
portant positions  and  have  general  control  over  the  colonies . 
There  are  excellent  forests  here.  Palm  oil  and  fiber, 
rubber,  ivory,  and  some  coffee 
are  exported.  Gold  Coast 
was  so  named  because  of  the 
gold  that  was  found  there. 

Problems  and  review  questions. 

1.  Where  are  the  chief  British 
possessions  in  Africa  ?  2.  Of 
what  value  are  such  lands  to  the 
British  people  ?  3.  Where  do 
most  of  the  white  people  live  in 
these  possessions  ?  4.  Where  is 
the  best  cotton  raised  in  Africa? 
5.  Explain  the  floods  of  the  Nile 
in  July. 

6.  Through  what  countries 
does  the  Cape-to-Cairo  Railroad 
pass  ?  7.  How  would  railroads 
help  in  the  development  of  the 
African  countries  ?  8.  What 
mineral  and  what  gem  is  South 
Africa  especially  noted  for  ? 


Fig.  463.  Port  Elizabeth  is  a  railroad  terminus  and  an  important  port  of 
the  Union  of  South  Africa.  It  has  no  real  harbor,  and  this  view  shows  the 
long  wharves  which  run  out  into  the  open  water,  with  the  derricks  for  loading 
and  unloading  vessels.  Can  you  explain  the  importance  of  Port  Elizabeth  ? 


Fig.  462.   This  is  one  of  the  plants  for  the  refining  of  gold  at  Johannesburg. 

The  ore,  which  is  mined  from  the  underground  layers,  or  ' '  reefs,"  is  brought 

to  the  surface,  sorted,  crushed,  and  finally  reduced  to  pure  gold.   Where  is 

the  gold  sent  from  Johannesburg  ?   What  are  its  uses  ? 

FRENCH  POSSESSIONS 

The  French  control  about  as  much  territory  in  Africa 
as  the  British,  if  we  include  the  island  of  Madagascar, 
but  a  large  portion  of  the  French  possessions  is  in  the 
Sahara. 

Morocco.  The  French  protectorate  over  Morocco  was 
established  in  1912.  The  Sultan,  who  formerly  had 
supreme  power,  must  now  follow  the  advice  of  a  French 
Resident  General  in  all  matters.  The  climate  of  most  of 
Morocco  is  delightful,  and  certainly  the  best  in  northern 
Africa.  Cool  breezes  come  in  from  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
snow-capped  summits  of  the  Atlas  Mountains  keep  off 
the  hot  winds  of  the  Sahara  (Fig.  464). 

The  interior  portions  of  this  country  are  as  yet 
unfit  for  foreign  travelers.    Neither  life  nor  property  is 

safe  here.  Where  the  French 
have  full  control  there  has 
been  a  marked  improve- 
ment, especially  in  means 
of  travel.  Good  roads  have 
been  made,  so  that  motor 
cars  can  go  quickly  far  into 
the  interior.  There  are  also 
a  few  modern  conveniences, 
such  as  the  telephone  and 
the  telegraph. 

"Many  parts  of  the  country 
have  rich  soil  suitable  for 
agriculture,  but  as  yet  the 
methods  in  use  are  primitive. 
Vine-growing  is  promising; 
cotton  has  been  introduced ; 
fish  are  abundant  along  the 
coast ;  and  in  the  mountains 


226 


MAP  STUDIES 


many  metals,  such  as  copper,  iron,  lead,  gold,  and  silver, 
have  been  found.  The  Moors,  who  live  in  Morocco,  are 
a   remnant   of   the   race   that   once   conquered   Spain. 

Algeria  is  divided  into 
three  somewhat  distinct 
parts.  In  the  north  is  the 
narrow  coastal  belt,  where 
the  soils  are  fertile  and 
where  European  farmers 
are  engaged  in  raising  the 
vine,  cereals,  olives,  and 
oranges. 

In  the  interior  the  land 
is  high  and  mountainous ; 
it  is  used  chiefly  by  the 
native  people  for  raising 
cereals  and  for  pasturing 
cattle  during  the  summer. 

Farther  south  is  the 
desert  region.  Here  there 
are  oases,  where  the  date 
palms  and  other  trees  bear 
fruit  in  summer  and  where 

the  native  people  pasture  their  herds  of  cattle  during 
the  winter.  Great  fortunes  are  made  in  the  dates  from 
these  oases  (Fig.  467). 

The  extreme  desert  conditions  in  the  south  of  Algeria 
limit  European  colonization  more  effectively  than  any 
other  barrier. 

The  climate  and  vegetation  of  Algeria  are  like  those 
of  southern  Europe,  but  they  are  a  little  more  nearly 
tropical.  The  rainfall  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the 
Atlas  Mountains  is 
about  25  inches  a 
year,  and  on  the 
southern  slopes  it 
is  about  20  inches. 
On  the  border  of 
the  desert  the  an- 
nual rainfall  varies 
from  7  to  15  inches. 

Algeria  suffers  on 
account  of  the  lack 
of  any  large  rivers 
and  from  a  long, 
dry  summer  season. 
Extensive  irrigation 
works  have  been  un- 
dertaken, and  many 
deep  wells  have  been  drilled.  At  the  southern  base  of  the 
Atlas  Mountains  there  are  large  supplies  of  water,  which 
can  be  obtained  by  drilling  deep  holes  into  the  rocks. 


Fig.  464.  Tangier,  the  chief  seaport  of  Morocco,  is  located  on  a  sheltered 

semicircular  bay  at  the  Atlantic  end  of  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar.   It  is  a 

very  old  city,  and  at  different  times  has  belonged  to  Portugal,  Spain,  and 

England.   To-day  it  is  the  principal  outlet  for  the  products  of  Morocco 


Fig.  465.   Algiers  is  the  capital  of  Algeria,  the  most  important  French  possession  in  Africa. 

The  city  is  located  on  the  west  side  of  the  Bay  of  Algiers.   The  harbor  works  have  cost  the 

French  a  great  deal  of  money.  This  view  shows  the  large  number  of  wharves  which  have  been 

built  in  order  that  many  ships  may  load  and  unload  at  the  same  time 


MAP  STUDIES 

I.  Make  a  list  of  the  chief  seaports  of  Africa.  Opposite 
the  name  of  each  port  place  the  name  of  the  country  in 

which  it  is  located.  2.  Why 
are  there  so  few  large  cities 
in  the  interior  of  Africa? 
3.  What  is  there  on  this  map 
that  helps  you  to  determine 
the  climate  of  northern  Africa? 
4.  What  part  of  Africa  is 
best  supplied  with  railroads? 
What  explanation  can  you 
offer  for  this  fact?  5.  De- 
scribe in  detail  the  route  of 
the  Cape-to-Cairo  Railroad. 

6.  Make  a  table  with  three 
columns:  in  one  write  a  list 
of  the  chief  foods  exported 
from  Africa ;  in  another,  the 
chief  raw  materials  used  in 
manufacture;  and  in  the  third, 
the  chief  mineral  exports.  For 
the  exports  from  northern 
Africa  see  the  map  between 
pages  207  and  210. 
7.  What  animal  products  are  shipped  from  Africa  ?  What 
vegetable  products  ?  8.  Name  ten  products  that  are  shipped 
to  the  United  States.  9.  Are  the  chief  imports  into  Africa 
foods  or  manufactured  articles?  Why?  10.  To  what  island 
near  Africa  should  you  send  for  cloves  ? 

II.  To  what  part  of  Africa  should  you  go  if  you  wished 
to  visit  a  diamond  mine  ?  a  gold  mine  ?  a  coffee  plantation  ? 
a  rubber  plantation  ?    a  cotton  plantation  ?    a  date  grove  ? 

12.  Name   four   large    navigable    rivers    in    this    continent. 

13.  In  which  of  these  rivers  is  navigation  interrupted  by  falls, 

rapids,  or  cataracts  ? 

14.  What  large  city 
in  the  United  States 
is  in  about  the  same 
latitude  as  Cairo  ? 
See  western  margin  of 
map.  15.  Through 
what  countries  does 
the  equator  pass  ? 
16.  What  countries 
in  Africa  are  wholly 
or  in  part  in  west 
longitude?  17.  Judg- 
ing from  this  map, 
what  parts  of  this 
continent  should  you 
think  are  densely  set- 
tled ?  What  parts 
are  sparsely  settled? 
Why  ?  18.  Make  a  list  of  the  European  nations  that  have 
African  possessions.  Opposite  the  name  of  each  one  of  these 
nations  place  the  names  of  their  African  possessions. 


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©  Gian  and  Company 


228 


OTHER  EUROPEAN  POSSESSIONS 


Tunis  is  the  name  of  a  country  and  of  a  city.    The     Jibuti,  ivory  and  hides  are  exported.     These  products 
city  is  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  sea.   The  people     are  brought  to  Jibuti  by  rail  from  Abyssinia. 


in  this  colony  are  chiefly  Arabs,  but 
there  are  many  settlers  who  have 
come  across  the  Mediterranean  from 
the  countries  of  southern  Europe. 
The  Europeans  are  the  agriculturists, 
and  they  raise  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
and  fruits.  Many  of  the  grapes  are 
used  for  making  wine.  The  native 
people  do  some  weaving.  They  make 
carpets  and  are  skillful  in  embroider- 
ing leather  goods.  There  are  cork 
factories  in  Tunis,  and  the  cork  forests 
might  well  be  further  developed. 


Home  work.  1.  On  your  outline  map  of 
Africa,  shade  or  color  the  French  posses- 
sions. 2.  Find  out  what  different  tropi- 
cal products  are  obtained  from  the  various  kinds  of  palm  trees. 


Fig.  466.  This  is  a  native  Arab  family  of  the 
Algerian  Sahara.  They  are  traveling,  and  all 
their  possessions  are  loaded  on  the  backs  of  the 
two  little  burros.   Can  you  describe  their  life  ? 


French  West  Africa  and  the  Sahara.  Most  of  French 
West  Africa  is  a  part  of  the  Sahara.  On  the  southern 
margin  of  the  desert  there  are  grasslands  where  cattle  are 
being  raised.  In  parts  of  French  West  Africa  there  are 
modern  improvements,  such  as  good  roads,  railways, 
telephones,  and  telegraphs,  and  a  telegraph  line  is  nearly 
completed  across  the  great  desert  from  Timbuktu  to 
Algeria.  The  Ivory  Coast  and  Dahomey  are  important 
portions  of  French  West  Africa.  Rubber  and  palm  oil 
are  the  chief  products. 

French  Equatorial 
Africa.  The  name 
"French  Congo"  was 
formerly  given  to  this 
country.  It  is  so  near 
the  equator  that  the 
climate  is  exceedingly 
hot  and  damp.  It  is 
estimated  that  there 
are  9,000,000  negroes 
in  this  colony,  and 
many  of  the  tribes 
are  only  half  civi- 
lized. The  southern 
portion  is  densely 
forested,  and  to  the 
north,  on  the  margin 
of  the  forest,  is  a 
grassland,  or  savanna. 

Somaliland.  On  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  bordering 
the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  is  French  Somaliland. 
Some   coffee  is   raised  here,   and  from  its  only  port, 


Fig.  467.  The  people  who  live  in  the  green  oases  along  the  northern  edge  of  the  Sahara 
Desert  raise  the  finest  dates  in  the  world.  In  this  view  they  are  packing  the  dates  in 
boxes  for  shipment.   Can  you  explain  the  presence  of  these  oasis  gardens  in  the  midst  of 

the  dry,  sandy  desert  ? 


Madagascar.  In  1896  the  entire 
island  of  Madagascar  was  placed 
under  French  control.  The  popula- 
tion consists  of  natives  of  France, 
a  few  other  European  people,  some 
Chinese  and  Malay  people,  and 
many  native  Africans.  Agriculture  is 
the  chief  occupation  in  Madagascar. 
Much  rice  is  grown  in  the  moist  low- 
lands, and  cattle  are  raised  in  great 
numbers  on  the  uplands. 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Name 
the  French  possessions  in  Africa.  2.  How 
do  the  French  improve  conditions  in  their 
colonies  ?  3.  Why  are  large  portions  of 
the  French  colonies  unattractive  to  white 

people  ?    4.  What  products  are  shipped  from  the  French  colonies  ? 

5.  What  colony  has  a  good  supply  of  cork  that  should  be  developed? 

OTHER  EUROPEAN  POSSESSIONS 

Former  German  Possessions.  Togo,  Kamerun  (now 
called  Cameroons),  Southwest  Africa,  and  Tanganyika 
Territory.  These  colonies  are  inhabited  by  millions  of 
native  negroes  and  a  few  white  people. 

Those  parts  that  are  near  the  equator  produce  coco- 
nuts, coffee,  rubber,  ivory,  and  palm  oil.  In  the  grass- 
land belts  north  and 
south  of  the  great 
tropical  forests,  sheep, 
cattle,  and  goats  are 
raised.  Many  beauti- 
ful diamonds  have 
been  obtained  from 
the  sands  of  the  west 
coast,  and  the  miners 
believe  they  have 
located  the  old  vol- 
cano where  these  dia- 
monds were  formed. 

These  colonies  have 
been  but  little  devel- 
oped.   There  are  only 
a  few  miles  of  railway, 
and  the  telegraph  and 
telephone  are  just  be- 
ginning to  be  used. 
The  French  and  the  British  have  divided  the  admin- 
istration of  Togo  and  Cameroons,  and  Southwest  Africa 
and  Tanganyika  Territory  are  under  British  control. 


LIBERIA  AND  ABYSSINIA 


229 


Portuguese  Possessions.  Angola.  Because  of  its 
location  on  the  plateau,  from  3000  to  4000  feet  above 
sea  level,  Angola  has  a  pleasant  climate.  It  is  the  largest 
of  the  Portuguese  colonial  possessions,  and  contains  rich 
plantations  of  rubber  trees,  coco  palms,  and  coffee.  The 
trade  is  largely  with  Portugal,  and  in  exchange  for  their 
native  products  the  inhabitants  import  textiles.  There 
are  several  hundred  miles  of  railroads  here,  and  tele- 
graphs and  telephones  are  also  in  use. 

Mozambique  (Portuguese  East  Africa).  About  half  of 
Mozambique  is  a  low  coastal  plain,  and  the  southeast 
trades  coming  to  this  region  bring  an 
abundance  of  moisture.  Sugar  and 
coconuts  are  raised,  and  in  the  moun- 
tains gold  and  coal  are  mined.  The 
trade  is  chiefly  with  Europe  and  India. 

The  Portuguese  also  hold  Portu- 
guese Guinea,  the  Madeira  and  Cape 
Verde  Islands,  and  several  other 
small  islands  near  Africa. 

Review  questions.  1.  Name  the  Portu- 
guese colonies.  2.  What  one  is  most  suit- 
able for  white  people  ?  3.  What  products 
do  the  Angola  colonists  send  to  Portugal  ? 
4.  What  are  the  chief  imports  of  Angola  ? 

Italian  Possessions.  Libia.  Much 
of  the  interior  of  this  land  is  a  desert, 
and  so  the  population  is  confined 
chiefly  to  the  coastal  region.  Olives, 
lemons,  and  fruits  are  raised,  and 
esparto  grass  is  grown.  Esparto  grass 
is  used  to  make  ropes,  baskets,  shoes, 
paper,  and  cloth.  Caravan  routes  from 
the  Sudan  lead  to  Tripoli.  Large 
quantities  of  ostrich  feathers  from  the  Sudan,  and  dates 
from  the  desert  oases,  are  brought  to  Tripoli  for  shipment. 

Eritrea  and  Somaliland  are  both  populated  chiefly  by 
negroes,  who  majce  their  living  by  agriculture  or  the 
care  of  stock. 

Review  questions.  1.  Where  are  the  Italian  colonies  in  Africa  ? 
2.  What  products  are  shipped  from  these  colonies  ?  3.  What  is 
the  chief  Italian  seaport  in  northern  Africa?  4.  What  products 
reach  Tripoli  from  the  Sudan  ? 


for  1600  miles  the  Congo  River  is  navigable.  This  brings 
the  traveler  to  Stanley  Falls,  named  in  honor  of  the 
great  English  explorer.  Study  the  map  on  page  227 
for  the  products  of  Belgian  Congo. 

Spanish  Possessions.  Just  south  of  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar  is  a  small  area  which  was  once  a  part  of 
Morocco,  but  which  has  been  left  by  treaty  to  the  con- 
trol of  the  Spanish  people.  A  little  farther  south,  on 
the  west  coast,  is  Rio  de  Oro.  This  is  a  land  with  some 
rich  soils.  It  consists  chiefly  of  a  coastal  plain,  but  the 
rainfall  is  not  sufficient  to  make  it  a  good  agricultural 
country.  The  Canary  Islands  belong 
to  Spain,  and  the  governor  of  the 
islands  has  charge  of  the  colony  on 
the  mainland.  East  of  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  there  is  a  small  country 
known  as  Rio  Muni.  This  and  a 
number  of  little  islands  in  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea  are  under  Spanish  rule. 

Review  questions.  1.  Where  is  the  Bel- 
gian colony  in  Africa  ?  2.  What  people 
live  there  ?  3.  What  are  the  products  of 
the  tropical  forest  ?  4.  How  far  may  boats 
go  up  the  Congo  ?  5.  Where  are  the  chief 
Spanish  possessions  in  or  near  Africa  ? 

LIBERIA  AND  ABYSSINIA 


©  Und.nrood  *  tnucrwuod 

Fig.  468.  This  engine  is  used  on  the  railroad 
which  crosses  the  equator  near  Stanley  Falls  in 
Belgian  Congo.  What  kind  of  fuel  is  burned  in 
this  engine  ?  Why  has  the  railroad  been  built 
in  this  particular  place  ?   See  map  on  page  227 


Liberia.    The  Republic  of  Liberia 

was  established  in  1847  by  people  in 

the  United  States  as  a  land  for  freed 

American  slaves.     The  constitution 

and  form  of  government  are  modeled 

after  those  of  the  United  States  of 

America,  and  the  flag  of  Liberia  is 

quite  similar  to  ours.   The  flag  has  red  and  white  stripes, 

and  in  the  blue  field  where  we  now  have  forty-eight 

stars  Liberia  has  one  large  star.    The  people  of  Liberia 

all  belong  to  the  black  race.    Part  of  the  country  is 

populated  by  the  free,  or  American,  Liberians  and  the 

remainder  by  the  original  native  tribes. 

The  natural  resources  of  this  little  republic  are  almost 
wholly  undeveloped.    Coffee,  cacao,  and  cotton  are  pro- 
duced in  small  quantities.    Gold,  iron,  tin,  and  copper 
Belgian  Possession.     Belgian   Congo.    This  is  the     have  been  mined  a  little.  There  are  no  railroads  in  Liberia, 
land  of  the  jungles  and  dense  tropical  forests  described     and  with  the  exception  of  ox-carts  there  is  no  means  of 


on  page  221.    There  are  at  least  7,000,000  natives  and 
about  5000  Europeans  in  this  colony. 

Ships  can  go  100  miles  from  the  coast  up  the  Congo 
River.  At  this  point  is  the  little  village  of  Matadi.  For 
the  next  200  miles  there  are  rapids,  and  a  railroad  has 
been  built  along  the  side  of  the  river.  At  the  upstream 
end  of  the  belt  of  rapids  is  Leopoldville,  and  from  there 


transportation.  Monrovia  is  the  capital  and  chief  seaport. 
Abyssinia  is  another  independent  country  in  Africa. 
It  is  organized  as  an  empire.  Most  of  the  people  are 
farmers  or  are  engaged  in  raising  cattle,  sheep,  or  goats. 
The  chief  exports  are  hides,  coffee,  and  ivory.  Cotton 
goods  form  the  chief  import.  Jibuti,  in  French  Somali- 
land,  serves  as  the  port  for  Abyssinia. 


230 


COMPARATIVE  MAP  STUDIES 


1  Under  10  inches 
p       1    10  to  20      " 
|         1    20  to  40      " 
M    40  to  80      » 
■■   Over  80      " 
ys*  Coast  Winds  in 
^^   Northern  Summec 
,'**''   Coast  Winds  in 
Northern  Winter 


5*     Longitude     20^  East    from     35*  Greenwich       60 


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1  Under  2  persona  per  sq.mile  \      KitriherleyL*^v— «   /  '    ^ 

£3  2to25  2<b#SU£v<S^       _ 

25  to  125  "      "     "  V     IiKiA»ntr    ■Pronto  /^ 


1 125  to  250 
|  Over  250 


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-  .;,  .  „  VL-'-*"^  Port  hlizaHoth 
Cot  Good  Hope^Agulhas  , 

,5*    longitude      20*  Eaat    from     35*  Greenwich     50' 


Average  annual  rainfall  in  Africa 


g)  Qian  wid  Company 


Distribution  of  people  in  Africa 


D  Ginu  »uJ  Company 


COMPAKATIVE  MAP  STUDIES 

I.  From  a  study  of  the  three  maps  before  you,  describe  the 
country  through  which  the  equator  passes  in  Africa.  2.  De- 
scribe the  geographic  features  of  the  Sahara.  Are  there  any 
mountains  in  this  desert  ?  Are  there  any  permanent  streams  ? 
If  so,  how  can  that  be  explained  ?  What  is  meant  by  "  wet- 
weather"  streams?  How  can  there  be  wet-weather  streams 
in  a  desert  ? 

3.  Where  do  people  live  in  this  desert  ?  4.  What  is  meant 
by  an  oasis  ?  5.  How  can  an  oasis  be  explained  ?  6.  Can  you 
locate  any  oases  on  the  population  map  ?  7.  How  are  routes 
of  travel  laid  out  across  the  desert  ? 

8.  How  do  the  Atlas  Mountains  influence  the  amount  of 
rain  that  falls  on  the  northwestern  coast  of  Africa  ?  9.  How 
much  is  the  rainfall  there  ?  10.  How  does  the  amount  of  rain 
on  the  north  coast  of  Africa  affect  the  distribution  of  popula- 
tion in  that  part  of  the  continent  ? 

II.  Notice  that  there  is  very  little  continental  shelf  about 
Africa.  This  means  that  the  great  continent  of  Africa  is 
almost  all  above  water.  North  America  and  Europe  are  in 
part  under  the  water  and  have  wide  continental  shelves. 

12.  The  number  of  square  miles  in  each  of  the  continents 
is  shown  in  the  Appendix.  Which  continent  is  larger  than 
Africa?  Which  continents  are  smaller  than  Africa?  See 
map  on  page  275. 

13.  Name  four  large  rivers  in  Africa  and,  from  a  study  of 
these  maps,  describe  the  country  through  which  each  flows. 


14.  What  is  the  most  striking  difference  between  the  coast 
line  of  Africa  and  that  of  Europe?  What  disadvantages  are 
there  in  a  coast  line  like  that  of  Africa?  15.  How  do  the 
mountains  of  Madagascar  affect  the  distribution  of  rainfall  on 
that  island?  16.  What  winds  bring  the  rain  to  Madagascar? 
17.  What  is  the  annual  rainfall  in  the  region  where  the  great 
African  lakes  are  located  ? 

18.  Explain  the  location  of  the  tropical  forests.  19.  What 
is  the  annual  rainfall  in  these  forests  ?  20.  What  products 
should  you  expect  to  find  in  the  great  tropical  forests? 
21.  What  are  the  best  routes  of  travel  in  those  forests  ? 

22.  What  is  the  annual  rainfall  in  the  grasslands  north 
and  south  of  the  tropical  forests  ?  23.  From  these  maps  what 
should  you  think  the  chief  occupations  of  people  in  these 
belts  must  be  ?  24.  Why  has  the  coastal  region  north  of  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea  a  tropical  forest  ? 

25.  Explain  the  presence  of  forests  in  the  Abyssinian  High- 
lands. 26.  What  great  valley  in  South  America  has  a  tropical 
forest  like  that  in  the  Congo  Basin  ?  27.  Why  is  there  so 
little  rainfall  in  southwestern  Africa  and  on  the  west  coast 
of  South  Africa  ? 

28.  In  what  parts  of  Africa  do  most  of  the  people  live? 
29.  How  in  general  is  the  distribution  of  population  in  Africa 
related  to  the  distribution  of  rainfall?  30.  How  can  you 
explain  the  dense  population  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  ? 
31.  What  winds  come  to  the  southeastern  coasts  ?  32.  What 
portions  of  Africa  will  prove  most  attractive  to  permanent 
white  settlers?    Why? 


ti  i  11  n  and  Company 


Fig.  469.  This  is  a  view  in  the  Himalayas,  the  highest  mountains  in  the 
world.  Notice  the  steep  slopes  and  the  sharp,  snow-covered  peaks.  In  the 
center  and  foreground  of  this  view  is  a  great  glacier  which  is  winding  its 
way  down  the  valley  between  the  high  mountain  slopes.    The  black  bands 


in  the  glacial  ice  are  composed  of  rock  material  which  the  ice  has  ground  off 
the  mountain  sides  and  is  carrying  along  with  it.  Locate  the  Himalayas 
on  your  map.  Are  they  young  and  rugged  mountains  or  old  and  worn- 
down  mountains  ?    Why  are  their  summits  always  covered  with  snow  ? 


ASIA 


Asia  is  the  largest  of  the  continents.  It  is  a  land  of 
very  ancient  civilizations ;  Mesopotamia  and  the  plains 
of  India  and  China  were  inhabited  by  civilized  races  long 
before  the  beginning  of  the  great  migrations  of  white 
people  from  Asia  into  Europe. 

In  southwestern  Asia,  around  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  there  were  highly  civilized  nations 
of  white  people  from  three  to  four  thousand  years  be- 
fore the  birth  of  Christ.  Palestine,  Syria,  and  most  of 
the  places  referred  to  in  the  Bible  are  in  this  part  of  the 
continent. 

To-day  more  than  half  the  people  of  the  world  live 
in  Asia.  The  lowlands  of  China,  Manchuria,  and  India 
are  all  densely  populated.  In  the  eastern  part  of  China, 
in  an  area  less  than  half  the  size  of  the  United  States, 
there  are  nearly  300,000,000  people ;  in  the  valley  of  the 
Ganges  and  on  the  coastal  lowlands  of  India  there  are 
about  300,000,000. 

India,  China,  and  Japan  have  recently  adopted  many 
of  the  ways  of  European  or  Western  civilization.  Rail- 
roads are  being  built,  mines  are  being  opened,  modern 
buildings  are  being  erected,  and  new  governments  are 
being  established.  The  industries  of  these  countries  are 
developing  rapidly,  and  the  United  States,  as  well  as 
the  nations  of  Europe,  is  interested  in  establishing  and 
maintaining  commercial  relations  with  these  countries. 

Natural  Regions 

The  Siberian  Plains  are  a  continuation  eastward  of 
the  wonderful  farm  lands  of  European  Russia.  See  map 
on  page  232.  These  Asiatic  lands  have  rich  soils,  but 
here  the  climate  is  rather  dry.    In  much  of  this  area 


there  is  not  sufficient  rainfall  to  support  forests,  but  just 
about  enough  for  grasses ;  this  has  led  very  naturally 
to  the  grazing  of  cattle  and  sheep  as  one  of  the  chief 
occupations  of  the  people.  Dry  farming  and  irrigation 
are  practiced. 

The  Lowland  of  Turan  is  the  southward  extension  of 
the  Siberian  Plains.  It  is  a  desert  and  semidesert  region 
between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  lofty  mountains  of 
the  Pamir.  Here  many  of  the  people  wander  about 
Avith  their  cattle  and  sheep.  Some  of  them  make  beau- 
tiful rugs  and  carpets,  which  they  carry  to  the  bazaars 
in  the  large  cities  and  sell.  Near  the  rivers  the  lands 
are  irrigated,  and  many  different  crops  are  raised. 

The  East  Siberian  Uplands  are  from  1000  to  2000  feet 
above  sea  level.  This  is  an  old  land  with  rich  soils  and  a 
dense  forest,  called  by  the  Russians  the  taiga.  The  climate 
is  so  severe  in  winter  that  few  people  live  here.  Many 
wild  animals  with  heavy  fur  coats  inhabit  the  forest 
and  are  sought  by  hunters. 

The  central  mountains  of  Asia  are  a  continuation  east- 
ward of  the  high  mountains  of  southern  Europe.  Most 
of  the  ranges  are  young  and  rugged.  They  include  the 
highest  mountains  in  the  world  (Fig.  469).  Far  to  the 
northeast  the  ranges  are  lower.  They  are  old  and  have 
been  worn  down  much  like  the  Ural  Mountains  and  the 
Appalachian  and  Brazilian  highlands. 

The  Great  Khingan  Mountains,  just  west  of  the 
plains  of  China  and  Manchuria,  are  chiefly  of  volcanic 
origin.  The  East  China  Highlands  are  old,  worn-down 
mountains  rising  only  from  2000  to  4000  feet  above  sea 
level.  Many  of  their  slopes  are  forested,  and  in  the  valleys 
of  that  portion  of  China  there  is  a  dense  population. 


231 


=>  jo  Bi,no»i  H 


MAP  STUDIES 


233 


o3     in 

2-1  " 

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234 


CLIMATE 


Climate 

Because  Asia  extends  so  far  from  north  to  south, 
because  it  is  so  very  large,  and  because  it  has  such  high 
mountains,  there  is  great  variety  in  the  climate.  The 
tip  end  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  is  very  near  the  equator, 
and  at  the  extreme  north  the  lands  are  within  the 
arctic  circle. 

Temperature.  The  southern  part  of  the  continent  has 
warm  weather  throughout  the  year.  In  the  interior 
the  changes  in  temperature  from  winter  to  summer  are 


When  these  cold  winter  winds  leave  the  central  part 
of  the  continent  and  blow  eastward  over  the  plains  of 
Manchuria  and  China,  the  temperature  falls  in  those 
countries.  This  is  the  reason  why  such  places  as  Peking 
have  very  cold  weather  during  the  winter. 

Rainfall.  Use  the  map  on  page  256.  The  inflowing 
monsoon  winds  of  the  summer  season  bring  most  of  the 
rain  to  Asia.  When  they  reach  the  coast  they  begin  to 
rise ;  the  air  and  the  moisture  in  the  air  become  colder, 
clouds  form,  and  soon  the  rain   begins  to  fall.    The 


greater  than  they  are  in  any  other  place  in  the  world,     lowlands  bordering  the  coast  are  thus  well  watered,  and 

In  the  Siberian  Uplands  the  tem- 
perature often  falls  to  70°  F.  below 
zero  in  winter  and  rises  to  80°  above 
zero  in  summer.  Most  of  the  land 
north  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains 
has  a  temperature  below  32°  F.  in 
January.  Only  those  lands  to  the 
south  and  east,  near  the  coasts,  are 
free  from  frosts  during  the  coldest 
months  of  the  year.  When  summer 
comes,  all  but  the  high  regions  and 
the  lands  far  to  the  north  are  warm. 

The  Iran  and  Arabian  plateaus  are 
the  hottest  portions  of  Asia,  because, 
in  addition  to  being  in  the  south,  their 
climates  are  very  dry.  If  there  were 
more  moisture,  more  of  the  sun's  heat 
would  be  used  up  in  evaporating  the 
moisture,  and  the  temperature  would 
not  be  so  high. 

Monsoons.    There  is  a  remarkable 
seasonal  change  in  the  winds  about 
Asia,  which  can  be  very  clearly  un- 
derstood.  In  summer  the  great  land  mass  becomes  very 
warm,  and  the  warm  air  over  it  expands  and  begins  to 
rise.   The  colder  air  over  the  oceans  to  the  north,  east, 
and  south  is  heavier,  and  therefore  it  settles  and  flows 
in  over  Asia.  The  colder  inflowing  air  forces  itself  under 
the  warmer  air  and  helps  to  make  the  warm  air  rise. 
The  inflowing  winds  coming  from  the  oceans  bring  the 
rains  which  fall  on  the  mountain  slopes. 

During  the  winter  the  land  becomes  very  cold 


Underwood  &  Underwood 

Fig.  471.  The  bare,  rocky  peninsula  of  Sinai  is 

one  of  the  driest  parts  of  western  Asia.    This 

view  shows  the  monastery  of  the  Mount  Sinai 

Monks.   Can  you  explain  the  climate  here  ? 


The 


as  the  air  continues  to  flow  inland 
the  seaward  slopes  of  the  mountain 
ranges  receive  an  abundance  of  rain 
and  snow. 

The  heavy  rains  on  the  mountain 
slopes  explain  the  large  rivers  which 
make  it  possible,  where  it  is  neces- 
sary, to  irrigate  the  rich  soils  of  the 
lowland  plains  and  thus  raise  food  for 
the  millions  of  people  who  live  there. 
Just  over  the  tops  of  the  moun- 
tains, in  the  interior  of  Asia,  are  the 
desert  regions.  When  the  monsoon 
winds  descend  the  leeward  sides  of  the 
mountains  and  cross  the  plateaus  of 
Tibet,  East  Turkestan,  or  Mongolia, 
they  have  little  moisture,  and  there- 
fore those  lands  are  arid. 

Iran  and  Arabia  do  not  get  strong 
monsoon  winds  from  the  ocean.  They 
are  exceedingly  dry. 

Western  Turkestan  is  a  semidesert, 
because  moisture-bearing  winds  can- 
not reach  it.  The  tundra  portion  of  Asia  has  little  rain 
or  snow,  because  the  air  in  very  high  latitudes  is  always 
cold  and  cannot  have  much  moisture. 

While  the  deserts  of  Asia  are  among  the  driest  places 
known,  no  other  place  in  the  world  receives  so  much 
rain  as  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains. 
Equatorial  rainy  belt.  All  the  way  around  the  world, 
near  the  equator,  there  is  an  equatorial  rainy  belt.  Dur- 
ing the  year  the  rainy  belt  moves  northward  and  south- 


air  over  the  land  becomes  even  colder  than  that  over  the     ward,  following  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun.    It  goes 
oceans,  so  the  movements  of  the  air  are  reversed.  See  map     north  during  the  northern  summer  and  south  during  the 

southern  summer.  In  its  belt  the  air  rises  and  carries 
with  it  moisture  that  commonly  forms  clouds  and  then 
falls  as  rain.  This  is  the  belt  where  rain  usually  falls 
every  afternoon.  Ceylon,  a  part  of  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
and  many  of  the  East  Indian  islands  have  two  rainy 
seasons,  because  the  equatorial  rainy  belt  passes  over 
them  twice  each  year. 


on  page  256.  The  cold,  heavier  air  over  the  land  area  settles 
and  flows  outward  or  seaward.  Such  winds,  coming  from 
the  interior  of  the  continent,  cannot  have  much  moisture. 
Winds  that  blow  toward  the  land  in  summer  and  from 
the  land  in  winter  are  called  continental  monsoons,  and 
these  winds  have  a  great  influence  over  the  living  con- 
ditions in  Asia. 


COUNTRIES  OF  SOUTHWESTERN  ASIA 


235 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Why  should  there  be  such 
very  different  climates  in  the  different  parts  of  Asia  ?  2.  What 
parts  of  Asia  are  the  hottest  ?  3.  Where  is  there  the  greatest  dif- 
ference between  the  summer  and  winter  temperatures  ?  4.  What 
are  the  monsoons  ?    Explain  them. 

5.  In  what  part  of  Asia  is  the  rainfall  heaviest  ?  6.  What  dis- 
advantages are  there  in  having  a  very  heavy  rainfall  ?  7.  Why 
are  the  high  plateaus  of  Asia  dry?  8.  Explain  the  coming  of 
two  rainy  seasons  in  one  place  in  a  year. 

COUNTRIES  OF  SOUTHWESTERN  ASIA 

One  of  the  most  interesting  parts  of  Asia  is  the  por- 
tion between  India  and  the  ^Egean  Sea.  It  includes 
much  rugged,  inaccessible  mountain  country,  the  two 
extensive  desert  plateaus  of  Iran  and  Arabia,  the  semi- 
desert  plateau  of  Anatolia,  and  the  rich  lowland  area  of 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  valleys. 

Three  or  four  thousand  years  before  Christ  several 
great  nations  nourished  in  this  part  of  Asia.  They  were 
composed  almost  entirely  of  people  of  the  white  race, 
and  their  civilizations  have  contributed  a  great  deal  to 
the  nations  which  later  grew  up  about  the  Mediterra- 
nean shores. .  In  this  part  of  the  world  the  Jewish  nation 
passed  through  its  eventful  history  (Fig.  473). 

In  the  thirteenth  century  Mongolian  invaders  from  the 
northeast,  of  whom  the  Ottoman  Turks  are  the  present 
representatives,  swept  over  these  lands  and  almost  oblit- 
erated the  civilizations  which  they  found.  They  adopted 
the  worship  of  Mohammed,  which  had  originated  in 
Arabia,  and  during  their  rule  Mohammedanism  became 
the  accepted  religion  in  most  of  southwestern  Asia. 
Since  the  Mongol  invasion  the  Jews  have  had  no  coun- 
try of  their  own,  and  the  Armenians,  who  have  held  to 

the  Christian  re- 
ligion, have  been 
crowded  into  a 
mountain  region 
and  subjected  to 
cruel  persecution. 
The  countries 
of  western  Asia 
made  very  little 
progress  under 
the  weak  govern- 
ment of  Turkey. 
Great  irrigation 
works  were  aban- 
doned, few  rail- 
roads were  built, 
and  many  of  the 
inhabitants  emi- 
grated to  other 
countries. 


Underwood  &  Underwood 


Fig.  472.   The  wharves  at  Smyrna  are  crowded 

with  camels  loaded  down  with  figs  and  grain  for 

export.  Where  will  these  products  be  sent  ?  What 

things  do  the  foreign  ships  bring  to  Smyrna  ? 


Fig.  473.  Jerusalem,  the  center  of  the  Jewish  nation  in  Biblical  times, 
is  now  a  typical  oriental  city  of  flat-roofed,  whitewashed  houses,  with  a 
mixed  population  of  Jews  and  Mohammedans.  At  the  left  in  this  view  is 
the  dome  of  the  Mohammedan  Mosque  of  Omar,  and  in  the  distance  is  the 

Mount  of  Olives 

Turkey.  During  the  World  War  Turkey  was  over- 
come by  the  forces  of  the  Allies,  and  as  a  result  lost  a 
large  part  of  its  Asiatic  territory. 

We  have  already  learned  that  a  small  part  of  Turkey 
is  in  Europe  (p.  215).  The  Asiatic  portion,  which 
is  much  larger,  now  consists  of  the  peninsula  of 
Anatolia,  between  the  Black  and  Mediterranean  seas, 
and  the  eastward  extension  of  this  peninsula  into  the 
lands  which  have  long  been  known  as  Armenia  and 
Kurdistan. 

Most  of  Turkey  is  very  rugged.  The  peninsula  of 
Anatolia  is  bordered  by  mountains.  At  the  western  end 
the  mountain  ranges  extend  out  into  the  sea,  making  a 
very  irregular  coast  line  with  good  harbors  and  many 
offshore  islands. 

Along  the  coasts  there  are  a  few  narrow  lowland  belts, 
and  here  the  summers  are  hot  and  the  winters  warm. 
On  the  higher  lands  of  the  interior,  where  the  Plateau 
of  Anatolia  is  located,  the  winters  are  cold,  but  the 
summers  are  hot  and  dry. 

Some  portions  of  the  plateau  are  dotted  with  tall 
cypresses  and  umbrella  pines,  but  most  of  this  region 
is  treeless.  Where  streams  come  from  the  mountains, 
irrigation  is  practiced  and  agriculture  is  carried  on,  but 
in  most  primitive  ways.  The  soils  are  rich,  and  the 
chief  products  are  tobacco,  cereals,  cotton,  figs,  and 
many  varieties  of  fruit.  The  cotton  industry  is  increas- 
ing. The  climate  is  favorable  to  mulberry  trees,  and 
many  people  raise  silkworms. 

Sheep  and  cattle  are  raised  among  the  mountains.  The 
Angora  goats  which  live  on  the  plateau  supply  the  hair 


236 


COUNTRIES  OF  SOUTHWESTERN  ASIA 


for  mohair  cloth.  Many  beautiful  shawls  and  rugs  are  years  this  fertile  land  was  almost  abandoned.  Ruins 
woven  in  Anatolia.  On  the  coastal  lowlands  large  quan-  now  mark  the .  sites  of  the  ancient  cities  of  Nineveh 
tities  of  figs  and  other  Mediterranean  fruits  are  raised.    ,  and  Babylon, 


mineral    wealth,    but    as 
been   opened.     There   are 


Anatolia  contains  much 
yet  very  few  mines  have 
only  a  few  railroads,  and 
these  are  in  the  western 
part  of  the  peninsula.  The 
railroad  which,  when  com- 
pleted, will  run  all  the 
way  from  Constantinople  to 
the  Persian  Gulf,  passes 
through  the  western  and 
southern  parts  of  Anatolia. 
A  branch  of  this  line  runs 
to  Angora,  the  capital  of 
Turkey,  in  the  semidesert 
plateau.  Other  lines  run 
to  Smyrna,  the  chief  sea- 
port (Fig.  472). 

In  the  mountains  of  Ar- 
menia and  Kurdistan  the 
summers  are  hot  and  the 
winters  extremely  cold. 
The  chief  occupations  of 
the  people  are  the  care  of 
sheep  and  goats,  the  culti- 
vation of  grapes,  and  the 
raising  of  maize,  cotton, 
and  tobacco. 

Syria  and  Palestine.  The 
western  part  of  Syria  is  a 
tableland  bordering  the  Med- 
iterranean Sea  and  sloping 
gently  eastward  into  the 
Syrian  Desert  and  the  low- 
land of  the  Euphrates  River. 
The  tableland  extends  south- 
ward into  Palestine,  which 
we  call  the  Holy  Land 
(Fig.  474).  France  controls 
Syria.  Since  the  World  War 
an  effort  has  been  made 
to  establish  a  national  home  for  the  Jews  in  Palestine. 

Near  the  coast  the  people  of  these  countries  raise 
olives,  oranges,  lemons,  and  grapes.  Tn  Syria  much  silk 
is  produced,  most  of  which  is  sent  to  France.  Many  of 
the  people  in  these  lands  are  shepherds. 

Iraq  is  an  Arab  kingdom  occupying  the  region  which 
has  long  been  known  as  Mesopotamia,  or  the  land 
between  the  rivers.  It  was  once  the  site  of  the  rich 
and  powerful  Babylonian  Empire,  but  for  hundreds  of 


©  tiinn  and  Company 

Fig.  474.  Relief  drawing  of  Palestine.  Locate  the  great  trough  in  Palestine. 
What  river  and  what  seas  are  in  this  trough  ?  Compare  the  elevation 
of  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea  with  that  of  the  Mediterranean.  Describe 
the  location  of  Jerusalem,  Nazareth,  and  Damascus.  What  are  the  chief 
occupations  of  the  people  on  the  western  plains  ?  on  the  heights  of  Judea  ? 


In  recent  years  the  British  have  begun  to  restore 
this    region.      Irrigation    works    have    been    planned 

which  will  reclaim  the  fer- 
tile lands  along  the  Tigris 
andtheEuphrates.  Northern 
Iraq  has  valuable  oil  which 
will  soon  be  developed. 

Bagdad,  familiar  to  us  in 
the  Arabian  Nights,  is  the 
capital  of  Iraq. 

MAP  STUDIES 

1.  Make  a  list  of  the  coun- 
tries that  border  on  the  east- 
ern end  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea;  on  the  Black  Sea;  on  the 
Caspian  Sea ;  on  the  Persian 
Gulf;  on  the  Red  Sea.  2.  Why 
are  there  so  few  navigable 
rivers  in  this  -part  of  the 
world  ? 

3.  Where  do  the  larger  riv- 
ers shown  on  this  map  get 
their  water?  Give  at  least 
two  examples.  4.  What  be- 
comes of  some  of  the  rivers 
that  flow  from  the  mountains 
into  the  deserts  ? 

5.  Judging  from  the  loca- 
tion of  the  cities,  do  most  of 
the  people  live  near  the  coast 
or  inland  ?  How  should  you 
explain  the  distribution  of  set- 
tlements ?  6.  Why  are  there 
so  few  railroads  in  this  part 
of  the  world  ? 

7.  How  do  people  travel  in 
these  lands  where  there  are 
no  railroads  and  no  navigable 
rivers?  8.  How  should  you 
explain  the  location  of  settle- 
ments at  the  base  of  moun- 
tain ranges  ?  9.  Judging  from 
the  products  and  natural  resources,  what  should  you  think 
are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people  in  these  countries  ? 

10.  What  products  from  these  countries  reach  the  United 
States?  11.  Should  you  expect  manufacturing  to  become  a 
leading  industry  in  these  countries?  Why?  12.  Locate 
the  Holy  Land  on  this  map. 

Home  work.  1.  Locate  on  an  outline  map  Smyrna,  Damascus, 
Jerusalem,  Bethlehem,  Mount  Ararat,  Bagdad,  the  Dead  Sea,  the 
river  Jordan,  the  Suez  Canal,  and  the  Bosporus. 


25" 


80°.Petrograd  C       35 


40°  •  Archangel  E     15°  Long.  F   East    50°  from  Q   Green  55°wich     H 


—      «  Capital  cities 

Principal  railroads 

VWft/sl  Land  below  sea  level 

i  Lowlands 


|  |01d,  worn-down 


[  I    Young,  rugged  mountains 


<m°         •Lourenpop 
ou Marques  v 


35 


D     Zanzibar  »40    Longitude  E  -Eos*   /rom  45    Greenwich  F  Tananarivo  50 


H    Mauritius  60 


©  Ginn  aad  Company 


238 


COUNTRIES   OF  SOUTHWESTERN  ASIA 


Fig.  475.   This  is  a  street  scene  in  Yanbo,  one^of  the  coast  towns  of  Hejaz. 

Of  what  materials  are  the  buildings  made  ?    Why  are  they  not  built  of 

wood  ?   Notice  the  camels  in  the  background.   Of  what  use  are  the  camels 

to  the  Arabians  ?  What  other  animals  do  they  raise  ? 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  For  what  reasons  are  the 
lands  in  western  Asia  especially  interesting  ?  2.  What  are  the 
chief  occupations  of  the  people  ?  3.  Why  is  this  a  good  region  for 
raising  silkworms  ?  4.  Why  are  there  no  large  cities  ?  5.  Why  is 
there  little  manufacturing  ?  6.  What  are  the  chief  disadvantages 
of  these  lands? 

7.  What  do  these  countries  most  need  to  attract  more  settlers  ? 
8.  Describe  the  great,  deep  valley  of  the  Holy  Land.  9.  What 
religions  were  founded  in  this  part  of  the  world?  10.  Where  did 
the  Mongolian  invaders  who  belonged  to  the  yellow  race  come 
from  ?  11.  How  were  the  rich  soils  of  Mesopotamia  formed  ? 
12.  How  could  the  lowlands  of  Mesopotamia  be  again  reclaimed 
for  agriculture  and  made  to  support  a  large  population? 

Arabia  is  a  country  without  a  strong  or  well-organized 
central  government.  Most  of  the  people  have  their 
homes  in  the  cities  or  towns  in  the  small  and  somewhat 
independent  states  about  the  margin  of  the  country 
(Fig.  475).  Those  living  in  the  vast  desert  interior 
usually  follow  a  nomadic,  or  wandering,  life  (Fig.  476). 
Where  springs  or  wells  occur  in  the  desert,  there  are  oases, 
and  in  each  oasis  date  palms  are  grown.  The  wandering 
Arabs  drive  their  sheep,  cattle,  goats,  and  donkeys  from 
one  pasture  to  another.  They  ride  beautiful  horses, 
which  are  famous  for  their  speed. 

Thousands  of  the  Arabian  people  make  annual  visits, 
or  pilgrimages,  to  Mekka  and  Medina.  Mekka  was  the 
birthplace  of  Mohammed,  the  founder  of  tbeir  religion. 
Every  Mohammedan  wishes  to  visit  Mekka  at  least  once 
during  his  lifetime.  There  is  now  a  railway  from  Da- 
mascus to  Medina  to  help  these  pilgrims  on  their  journey. 

In  the  extreme  south  of  Arabia  the  mountain  slopes 
have  been  terraced,  and  large  crops  of  coffee  are  raised, 
which  are  exported  from  Mokha.  Sea  fogs  help  out  the 
scanty  rainfall  of  this  coastal  belt. 


Fig.  476.   These  wandering  Arabs  have  pitched  their  tent  just  outside  the 

walls  of  an  old  fort  in  one  of  the  desert  oases.    Can  you  describe  the  life 

of  these  people  ?  How  does  it  differ  from  that  of  the  Arabs  in  the  villages 

and  towns  ?   How  do  these  people  earn  their  living  ? 

Hejaz.  The  people  of  this  country  are  Arabians. 
In  1916  they  threw  off  the  Turkish  yoke  and  established 
a  kingdom.  A  national  flag  was  then  adopted  and  a 
national  army  formed.  Hejaz  includes  the  cities  of 
Mekka  and  Medina,  and  is  the  most  progressive  of  the 
independent  Arabian  countries. 

Aden  and  Oman.  The  British  have  a  small  possession 
at  the  southwest  corner  of  the  Arabian  peninsula,  called 
Aden,  which  they  use  as  a  coaling  station.  Oman,  at 
the  southeast  corner,  is  a  small  independent  state  bor- 
dering on  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  has  become  known 
for  its  pearl  fisheries.  Some  of  the  largest  and  most 
beautiful  pearls  in  the  world  are  found  in  the  waters 
of  the  Persian  Gulf.    Maskat  is  the  seaport  of  Oman. 

Persia  occupies  the  western  part  of  the  Plateau  of  Iran 
and  the  mountain  ranges  to  the  north  and  south.  Most 
of  the  plateau  is  so  dry  that  few  people  can  live  there. 
Grazing  is  the  chief  occupation,  and  the  shepherds  must 
wander  about  to  find  pasture  for  their  sheep  and  goats. 

Many  of  the  mountains  are  of  limestone,  into  which 
the  rain  water  sinks  easily  and  flows  underground. 
Wherever  an  underground  river,  which  may  have  started 
in  the  mountains,  comes  to  the  surface,  there  is  a  spring, 
and  that  means  an  oasis.  In  desert  places  the  people 
can  sometimes  secure  water  by  digging  deep  wells.  To 
convey  the  water  long  distances  without  loss  by  evapora- 
tion under  the  hot  sun,  they  have  dug  underground 
channels  called  kanats,  into  which  the  water  is  turned 
when  it  is  drawn  up  from  the  wells.  These  channels 
may  be  traced  many  miles  by  the  mounds  of  earth 
thrown  up  in  excavating  them. 

Trees  that  need  dry  air  for  their  tops  and  water  at 
their  roots  grow  to  perfection  in  parts  of  Persia.    The 


COUNTRIES  OF  WEST-CENTRAL  ASIA 


239 


date  palm  is  an  excellent  example ;  it  seems  to  flourish 
in  a  scorching  sun  if  its  roots  are  wet.  Its  fruit  is 
spoiled  by  a  single  shower.  The  Persian  apricot  and 
mulberry  are  regarded  as  the  finest  in  the  world.  Since 
good  mulberry  leaves  can  be  raised,  the  Persian  people 
have  developed  a  flourishing  silk  industry.  Persian  rugs 
and  tapestries  are  famous.  Many  of  the  Persian  rugs 
are  named  after  the  places  where  they  are  made. 

Teheran  is  the  capital  and  lies  at  the  southern  base 
of  the  Elburz  Mountains,  in  sight  of  their  snow-capped 
summits  (Fig.  477). 

Afghanistan.  In  the  northeastern  corner  of  the  great 
desert  plateau  of  Iran,  and  extending  into  and  a  little 
beyond  the  rugged  Hindu  Kush  Mountains,  is  Afghan- 
istan. Early  each  summer,  when  the  snows  melt  in  the 
mountains,  the  streams  bring  rich  alluvial  soils  to  the 
lower  lands.  Near  the  rivers  there  are  irrigated  fields 
and  a  few  small  settlements,  but  the  inhabitants  can 
do  little  more  than  raise  enough  food  to  live  on.  Some 
cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are  raised. 

Kabul  is  the  capital  and  is  located  on  the  Kabul 
River,  which  flows  to  the  Indus.  This  valley  is  part  of 
the  overland  route  to  India,  but  in  its  lower  course  it  is 
impassable,  and  travelers  must  go  through  a  very  narrow 
notch  in  the  mountains,  known  as  Khyber  Pass. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  makes  it  difficult  to 
live  in  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan?  2.  Why  do  so  many 
people  want  to  visit  Mekka?    3.  What  is  Mokha  famous  for? 

4.  What  articles   from   Persia  are  found  in  American  homes  ? 

5.  What  do  most  of  the  people  on  the  Plateau  of  Iran  do  for  a 
living  ?  6.  Locate  from  memory  Mekka,  Medina,  Mokha,  Teheran, 
Aden,  and  Maskat. 

Home  work.  1.  Read  a  sketch  of  the  life  of  Mohammed. 
2.  Find  out  some  reasons  why  the  camel  can  live  on  the  desert. 


COUNTRIES  OF  WEST-CENTRAL  ASIA 

The  central  part  of  western  Asia  contains  a  number  of 
small  states  which  are  allied  with  the  union  of  Russian 
republics.  They  occupy  the  semidesert  lowland  of  Turan. 
Here  the  streams  from  the  mountains  flow  to  inland 
seas.    They  never  reach  the  ocean. 

Transcaspia  is  north  of  Persia  and  east  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  It  is  a  very  dry  district,  where  the  wandering  life 
of  shepherds  is  about  all  that  is  possible.  It  is  a  thinly 
settled  province. 

Bokhara  is  a  prosperous  state  which  has  long  been 
somewhat  independent.  It  is  famous  among  Americans 
and  Europeans  for  the  beautiful  Bokhara  rugs  which 
are  woven  there.  It  also  produces  large  quantities  of 
corn,  fruit,  silk,  tobacco,  and  cotton. 

The  city  of  Bokhara  is  a  center  of  Mohammedan 
learning,  containing  over  one  hundred  colleges  and  no 
less  than  three  hundred  and  sixty  mosques. 

Khiva  is  a  small  state,  west  of  Bokhara,  where  cotton 
and  silk  are  produced  in  large  quantities,  and  where 
beautiful  rugs  are  made. 

Western  Turkestan  extends  northward  from  Bokhara 
to  the  southwestern  boundary  of  Siberia.  It  is  a  land 
of  broad,  dry  steppes,  crossed  here  and  there  by  rivers. 
Along  the  rivers  are  narrow  strips  of  irrigated  lands  where 
the  water  brings  many  crops  to  perfection,  gives  rise  to 
settlements,  promotes  trade,  and  leads  to  the  growth  of 
wealth.  Tashkend  is  the  capital  of  Western  Turkestan. 
Samarkand  is  a  second  important  city.  In  the  bazaars 
of  these  cities  the  merchants  sell  the  goods  brought 
by  camels  over  the  long  caravan  routes,  as  well  as  the 
carpets,  rugs,  and  skins  brought  in  by  the  steppe- 
dwellers,  and  the  products  from  the  irrigated  farm  lands. 


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Fig.  477.  The  government  gate  at  Teheran  is  a  very  fine  example  of  Persian 
architecture.  Its  decoration  shows  the  same  beauty  of  design  which  is  found 
in  the  Persian  rugs.  Locate  Teheran  on  your  map.  Why  is  the  Persian  capi- 
tal less  important  commercially  than  Tabriz,  the  chief  city  of  the  country  ? 


Fig.  478.  This  is  a  formal  Persian  dinner  party.  The  guests  are  seated  on 
beautiful  oriental  rugs,  and  the  dishes  are  set  on  mats  of  Persian  tapestry. 
The  servants  stand  in  the  background,  ready  to  attend  to  their  masters' 
needs.   All  the  men  wear  close-fitting  caps,  according  to  the  Persian  custom 


240 


SIBERIA 


SIBERIA  work  in  the  forest.  Here  the  wolf,  bear,  silver  fox,  sable, 

Most  of  Siberia  is  controlled  by  Russia.    The  eomple-    and  squirrel  live ;  and  since  it  is  a  very  cold  country, 
tion  of  the  railway  from  European  Russia  to  Vladivostok    these  animals  have  heavy  coats  and  yield  many  of  the 


best  furs  in  the  world's  fur  market. 

Along  the  southern  margin  near  the  railway  there 
are  small  clearings,  and  as  the  population  increases,  the 

forest  will  prove  to 
be  a  valuable  source 
of  timber,  and  the 
cleared  land  will 
undoubtedly  prove 
good  for  farming 
(Fig.  482). 

Steppes.  Large 
areas  of  the  Sibe- 
rian grasslands,  or 
steppes,  are  good 
agricultural  lands. 
In  the  district  cen- 
tering about  Omsk 
there  are  extensive 
wheat  fields,  where 
modern    American 

long,  dark  winter,  when  temperatures  fall  many  degrees  harvesting  machinery  is  being  used  (Fig.  483).  Much  of 
below  zero,  and  a  short  summer,  with  almost  unbroken  the  grassland  serves  as  a  pasture  for  dairy  cattle,  and  the 
daylight  (Fig.  479).  The  frozen  ground  thaws  out  in  rich  cream  produced  is  used  for  making  butter.  This 
the  spring  after  the  snow  has  disappeared,  but  the  meltr  is  the  most  nourishing  of  Siberian  industries,  and  snip- 
ing extends  less  than  two  feet  below  the  surface.  ments  of  butter  are  made  to  points  as  far  away  as  England. 
The  tundra  is  overgrown  with  mosses,  lichens,  and  The  drier  parts  of  the  steppes  are  suitable  for  grazing 
many  dwarf  plants.    Red  berries  are  abundant  on  the     sheep  and  goats. 

low  bushes,  and  brilliant  Alpine  flowers  bloom  there.         Highlands.    In  the  southern  part  of  Siberia  there  are 
There  are  also  swarms  of  mosquitoes,  and  many  birds     young,  rugged  mountains,  and  in  the  east  a  series  of  old, 


marked   the  beginning  of  modern   Siberia  (Fig.  480). 
This  great  railway  is  between  5000  and  0000  miles  long. 

For  convenience  in  study  Siberia  may  be  thought  of 
in  four  divisions : 
(1)  the  tundra  far  to 
the  north  ;  (2)  the 
taiga,  or  great  for- 
ests, just  south  of 
the  tundra ;  (3) the 
steppes,  or  grassy 
plains,  in  the  west ; 
and  (4)  the  high- 
lands in  the  south. 

Tundra.  In  the 
tundra  belt  in  Asia, 
just  as  in  the  belts 
of  similar  latitude 
in  Europe  and  North 
America,  there  are 
two    seasons,  —  a 


Photo  Service,  lac. 


Fig.  479.   This  is  a  picture  of  Nizhnii  Kolymsk,  one  of  the  little  villages  of  the  Siberian  tundra. 

The  photograph  was  taken  at  noon  on  a  winter  day.  Can  you  explain  why  it  is  so  dark  in  the 

middle  of  the  day  ?  Study  the  extent  of  the  Siberian  tundra  on  the  map  opposite  page  256.  How 

much  rainfall  does  this  region  receive  ?  What  are  the  occupations  of  the  people  ? 


that  fly  far  to  the  north. 

The  native  people  of  northern 
Siberia  have  domesticated  the  rein- 
deer, and  they  live  partly  upon  rein- 
deer milk.  For  food  they  gather 
berries,  catch  fish  in  the  rivers,  and 
kill  some  of  the  game  birds.  These 
people  are  wanderers,  and  as  they 
move  southward  on  the  approach  of 
winter  they  take  many  of  the  rein- 
deer with  them. 

Taiga.  Stretching  east  and  west 
across  Asia  south  of  the  tundra  belt 
is  one  of  the  greatest  forests  in  the 
world.  For  the  most  part  it  is  a  dark, 
cold  wilderness  about  4000  miles  long 
and  from  1000  to  2000  miles  wide. 
A  few  native  huts  are  scattered  along 
the  stream  courses,  and  in  winter 
there  are  hunters  and  trappers  at 


yL    .  . 

MM/ 

if  » -  isW^   »iir-^ 

mTm 

©  Underwood  k  Underwood 

Fig.  480.   This  view  shows  a  group  of  Chinese 

coolies  at  work  on  the  eastern  end  of  the  Siberian 

Railroad.  Trace  the  route  of  this  railroad  on  your 

map.  Explain  its  importance 


worn-down  mountain  ranges.  See  map 
on  page  232.  The  mountains  contain 
rich  stores  of  minerals  that  have  not 
yet  been  worked,  and  they  furnish 
pasture  for  stock  during  the  summer 
season.  The  eastern  and  northeast- 
ern portions  are  heavily  forested. 
The  forests  include  many  varieties 
of  fir,  oak,  pine,  and  spruce  which 
have  a  high  commercial  value. 

Rivers.  In  Siberia  there  are  three 
very  long  rivers  which  rise  in  the 
central  mountains,  where  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snows  furnishes  water,  and 
flow  northward  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
To  the  west  is  the  Ob ;  next,  to  the 
east,  is  the  Yenisei ;  and  farther  east 
is  the  Lena.  Their  mouths  are  north 
of  the  arctic  circle,  and  during  the 
winter  their  lower  courses  freeze. 


SIBERIA 


241 


As  summer  advances,  the  snows 
melt  in  the  high  mountains  to  the 
south  before  the  ice  has  left  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers.  The  waters 
come  down  the  valleys  until  they 
reach  the  ice ;  there  ponds  are  formed, 
and  as  the  waters  rise  vast  areas 
are  flooded.  During  that  time  travel 
east  and  west  by  land  becomes  almost 
impossible  in  northern  Siberia. 

These  great  rivers  are  used  as 
highways  of  travel  in  summer  and 
winter.  During  the  summer,  when 
the  streams  are  all  open,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  go  east  or  west  across 
northern  Siberia  in  boats,  using  the 
tributaries  and  certain  canals.  In 
winter  the  travelers  use  sledges. 

The  Amur  is  a  large  and  impor- 
tant river  highway  in  the  east,  and 
forms  the  boundary  between  Siberia 
and  Manchuria. 

Cities.  The  four  most  important  cities  in  Siberia  along 
the  route  of  the  Siberian  Railroad  are  Omsk,  Tomsk, 
Irkutsk,  and  Vladivostok.  The  ending  sk  on  a  name 
means  that  the  city  or  town  is  on  a  river  of  similar 


Press  I]  lust  ratine  Service,  rnc. 

Fig.  481.  The  Russian  Cathedral  at  Omsk  is  the 
center  of  the  religious  life  of  the  city.  Locate 
Omsk  on  your  map.  Why  is  it  important  com- 
mercially ?  What  are  the  products  of  the  country 
surrounding  Omsk  ? 


Irkutsk  is  the  chief  city  in  the 
Yenisei  Basin  and  one  of  the  largest 
cities  in  Siberia.  The  smelting  of 
gold  ores  has  become  an  important 
industry  here. 

Vladivostok,  the  eastern  terminus 
of  the  Siberian  Railroad,  is  a  very 
important  city.  It  has  an  excellent 
harbor  and  is  protected  by  a  fortress. 
There  are  flour  mills,  factories  where 
machinery  is  made,  and  plants  where 
bricks  are  manufactured.  The  city 
has  a  large  export  and  import  trade, 
although  the  harbor  is  icebound  for 
three  months  of  the  year. 

Future.  The  future  of  Siberia  lies 
in  developing  its  wealth  of  natural 
resources.  There  are  rich  beds  of 
coal  and  iron,  deposits  of  gold,  and 
extensive  tracts  of  forests  that  have 
as  yet  been  untouched.  Before  these 
products  can  be  given  to  the  world, 

more  people  must  go  to  live  in  Siberia,  and  means  of 

transportation  must  be  improved. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Describe  briefly  the  physical 
features  of  Siberia.  2.  Where  do  most  of  the  people  live  ? 
3.  What  are  the  leading  occupations  ?  4.  WThat  resources  as  yet 
remain  undeveloped  ?   5.  What  are  the  four  leading  cities  ? 

6.  WThy  is  Siberia  a  land  of  great  opportunities  ?  7.  What  does 
it  need,  to  hasten  settlement  and  development  ?  8.  Name  three 
large  rivers  of  Siberia.  9.  What  use  is  made  of  the  mountain 
streams  when  they  have  become  rivers  in  the  lowlands  ?  10.  What 
products  has  Siberia  for  export  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Read  an  account  of  a  railroad  journey  across 
Siberia.   2.  Find  out  about  the  building  of  the  Siberian  Railroad. 


Fig.  482.  This  is  a  view  in  one  of  the  many  small  villages  which  are  found 

along  the  southern  edge  of  the  taiga.    The  wooden  houses  in  these  villages 

are  nearly  all  alike.    The  sledge  is  the  common  means  of  transportation 

in  the  winter.   Can  you  describe  the  life  of  the  people  here  ? 

name.  Thus  Omsk  is  situated  on  the  Om  River,  Tomsk 
on  the  Tom  River,  and  Irkutsk  on  the  Irkut  River. 
Omsk  is  in  the  center  of  a  wheat-producing  district 
and  good  grazing  country.  Very  naturally,  it  has  be- 
come an  important  center  for  dairy  products,  and  the 
farmers  bring  their  butter  and  cheese  here  to  be  sold. 
Omsk  is  also  a  junction  for  the  east-and-west  traffic  on 
the  railroad  and  the  north-and-south  traffic  on  the  river 
(Fig.  481).  Tomsk  is  in  a  gold-mining  district.  It  has 
a  university  and  many  other  excellent  institutions. 


(Q)  CentnJ  Sen  Photo  Jemct,  Ime. 

Fig.  483.  This  man  is  a  progressive  Siberian  farmer  of  the  southern  steppes. 

He  has  purchased  an  American  mowing  machine,  and  by  harnessing  his  pair 

of  camels  to  it  he  can  cut  his  grain  in  a  much  shorter  time  than  he  could 

when  he  mowed  by  hand.   What  kinds  of  grain  does  he  raise  ? 


242 


CHINA 


9  £    M.  .Nimiiau 


Fig.  484.   Shanghai  is  the  largest  port  of  China  and  a  city  of  a  million 
people.   This  view  shows  Soochow  Creek  at  Shanghai,  with  public  build- 
ings and  factories  in  the  distance.   What  things  are  being  made  in  these 
factories  ?  What  are  the  exports  and  imports  of  Shanghai  ? 

THE  REPUBLIC  OF  CHINA 

China  is  one  of  the  countries  that  the  world  will  watch 
with  the  greatest  interest  during  the  next  fifty  years. 
The  people  belong  to  the  yellow  race ;  they  are  patient, 
careful,  and  very  industrious ;  they  have  been  very  slow 
and  unwilling  to  change  their  customs,  but  wonderful 
changes  are  now  taking  place  in  the  country.  It  is  a 
land  shut  in  on  the  west  by  high  mountains  and  deserts, 
which  have  prevented  easy  intercourse  with  other  people 
by  land.  It  is  bordered  on  the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
which  until  recent  times  has  been  a  barrier  to  travel. 
Thus  the  Chinese  people  have  been 
isolated  and  have  developed  a  civi- 
lization quite  different  from  that  of 
the  Europeans,  who  could  easily 
mingle  with  other  peoples. 

In  many  ways  their  early  civili- 
zation was  remarkable.  Its  records 
go  back  more  than  two  thousand 
years  before  Christ  was  born.  They 
invented  paper,  gunpowder,  and  the 
art  of  printing,  and  learned  to  make 
and  use  silk.  They  were  keeping 
historical  records  before  civiliza- 
tion had  begun  in  Europe.  Now  the 
Chinese  are  beginning  to  open  up 
their  great  stores  of  coal  and  iron. 
Railways  and  steamships  have  been 
built,  modern  schools  and  universi- 
ties have  been  established  (Fig.  485), 
and  the  larger  cities  begin  to  look 
like  the  cities  of  western  Europe 
and  North  America  (Fig.  484). 


Fig.  486.  The  great  Chinese  Wall  is  1600  miles  long 
and  was  begun  two  hundred  years  before  Christ  to 
defend  the  empire  against  invaders.  Trace  this  great 
wall  on  your  map.  Does  it  form  the  northern  boundary 
of  China  to-day  ? 


Fig.  485.   This  is  the  government  technical  institute  at  Shanghai.    It  is 

a  modern  school  of  the  best  kind,  where  the  young  Chinese  students  are 

trained  to  be  scientists  and  engineers.  Many  of  the  teachers  in  this  school 

have  received  part  of  their  education  in  the  United  States 

China  is  entering  the  industrial  and  commercial  life 
of  the  world,  and  with  its  large  population,  which  gives 
it  wonderful  man-power,  it  is  destined  to  play  a  very 
important  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  world. 

Home  work.  1.  Compare  the  size  of  China  with  that  of  the 
United  States.  Which  is  the  larger  ?  2.  Look  up  the  lengths  of 
the  three  longest  rivers  of  China.  Where  do  they  rank  in  a  list 
of  the  ten  longest  rivers  of  the  world  ? 

Climate.  The  lowlands  on  the  east  receive  rains  from 
the  southeast  monsoon  winds  during  the  northern  sum- 
mer. See  map  on  page  256.  The  summer  monsoons  are 
warm,  and  so  help  to  increase  the  temperature  of  China 

during  the  growing  season.  When 
winter  arrives,  the  winds  are  from 
the  northwest,  or  interior  of  the  con- 
tinent, where  it  is  very  cold  in  win- 
ter. These  winds  bring  cold  weather, 
especially  to  Manchuria  and  the 
northern  part  of  the  Plain  of  China. 
The  high  mountains  to  the  west 
have  heavy  snowfalls,  and  the 
melting  snows  provide  water  for 
the  rivers.  The  plateau  portions  of 
China  are  so  shut  in  by  mountains 
that  they  receive  very  little  rain- 
fall, and  they  are  all  deserts  or 
semideserts. 

Rivers.  The  Yangtze  is  the  long- 
est river  in  China  (Fig.  490).  After 
leaving  the  mountains,  where  it 
flows  through  a  deep  canyon,  it 
crosses  the  broad  lowland  plain  to 
the  East  China  Sea.  "  Yangtze  " 
is  the  Chinese  word  meaning  tea. 


CHINA 


243 


The  Hwang,  or  Yellow,  river  is 
so  named  from  the  great  amount 
of  yellow  mud  that  it  carries.  It 
has  been  called  "China's  Sorrow"; 
for  when  it  overflows,  thousands  of 
people  are  drowned  and  vast  areas  of 
crops  are  destroyed.  In  1887  a  great 
flood  occurred  and  a  million  people 
were  drowned.  The  Amur  is  another 
very  long  river.  The  rivers  of  China 
brought  the  fine  materials  from  the 
mountains  and  made  the  lowlands. 

For  nearly  four  thousand  years 
the  rivers  were  the  chief  highways 
of  travel  in  China.  Even  to-day 
there  are  but  few  railroads  for  so 
large  and  so  densely  populated  a 
country,  and  the  rivers  therefore 
continue  to  be  of  great  importance 
in  the  domestic,  or  inland,  commerce 
of  the  nation  (Fig.  490). 

Natural  resources.    The  rich  soils  of  the  lowlands  are 


Underwood  k  Underwood 


Fig.  487.  At  this  point'  an  opening  has  been  made  in 
the  ancient  wall  around  Peking,  to  allow  the  railroad 
to  enter  the  city.  China  has  more  than  6000  miles  of 
railroads.  Why  are  they  necessary  to  China's  progress? 


Occupations.  Where  there  are  so 
many  people  the  great  problem  is 
to  raise  enough  food,  and  therefore 
most  of  the  Chinese  are  farmers 
or  gardeners.  The  farms  are  very 
small  indeed,  commonly  but  three 
or  four  acres.  Millions  are  engaged 
in  raising  rice  (Fig.  489) ;  many 
work  on  sugar  plantations ;  others 
raise  wheat,  tobacoo,  or  hemp ;  the 
gathering  of  tea  employs  many 
hands,  and  likewise  the  care  of 
gardens.  Rice,  wheat,  the  large  and 
small  millet,  and  the  soya  bean  are 
so  important  to  the  life  of  the 
Chinese  that  they  are  sacred  plants 
and  no  one  may  injure  them.  Millet 
is  a  coarser  grain  than  wheat  and  not 
as  nourishing.  Chinese  people  raise 
a  great  many  hogs,  for  those  animals 
eat  coarse  food,  which  is  cheap. 


While  agriculture  remains  the  most  important  of  all 
China's  greatest  natural  resource,  and  it  is  the  industry  occupations  in  China,  in  the  last  few  years  there  has 
of  the  people  and  their  care  of  the  soils  that  has  made  been  a  notable  increase  in  manufacturing,  and  we  may 
it  possible  for  so  many  people  to  live  in  the  country  for  look  forward  to  a  great  industrial  development  in  the 
centuries.    In  the  south  valuable  forests  cover  parts  of     cities  of  northern  China. 


the  mountain  area.  Unfortunately,  large  areas  of  China 
have  been  stripped  of  their  forests.  In  those  areas  much 
of  the  soil  has  been  washed  away,  floods  have  occurred, 
and  the  lands  are  of  little  use.  Along  the  seacoast  there 
are  several  good  harbors. 


Cities.  Peking  is  a  very  ancient  city.  It  was  the  cap- 
ital of  the  Kingdom  of  China  for  three  thousand  years ; 
for  over  eight  hundred  years  it  served  as  the  capital  of 
the  Chinese  Empire ;  and  now  it  is  the  capital  of  the 
Republic  of  China.   The  history  of  this  city  reflects  the 


China  has  large  supplies  of  coal  and  iron.  Coal  seams  history  of  the  nation  through  a  long  period  of  time, 

40  feet  thick  have  been  reported.  Natural  oil,  or  petro-  during  which  the  people  have  secured  more  and  more 

leum,  has  been  found,  and  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  and  freedom.    About  the  city  there  is  a  wall  sixty  feet  in 

many  other  minerals  have  been  located.  Mining  is  certain  height.    The  gates  in  that  wall  were  formerly  locked 

to  develop  very  rapidly  in  China  during  the  next  few  years,  at  night,  as  was  the  custom  in  other  walled  cities  of 


Fig.  488.  The  mule  litter  is  often  used  for  travel 
in  China,  where  good  roads  are  very  rare.  The 
passenger  sits  cross-legged  under  the  canopy,  and 
the  little  mules  trot  safely  over  the  narrowest  paths 


Fig.  489.   This  man  is  plowing  his  rice  fields  with 

a  rude  wooden  plow  drawn  by  a  water  buffalo. 

The  fields  are  flooded  during  the  planting  season, 

because  rice  grows  best  if  planted  under  water 


©  E.  M.  Kewmu 

Fig.  490.  These  boats  are  Chinese  freight  junks 
sailing downthe Yangtze RivertoShanghai.  What 
products  are  they  carrying  ?  Why  are  the  Chinese 
rivers  of  such  great  importance  to  the  country? 


244 


CHINA 


Kiaochow  is  an  important  seaport  on  the  coast  of  the 
rich  Shantung  peninsula  of  China.  It  is  the  outlet  for 
the  products  of  this  peninsula,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  wheat,  tobacco,  coal,  beef,  and  hides.  The 
chief  imports  are  cotton  goods,  petroleum,  and  lumber. 

Manchuria  is  a  large  province  in  the  northern  part  of 
China.  It  is  a  part  of  the  Republic  of  China  but  has  a 
large  degree  of  independence.  The  western  part  of  the 
country  is  dry,  and  little,  but  grass  grows  there.    The 


E.  M.  Newman 


Fig.  491.   The  broad,  steep-walled  harbor  of  Hongkong  is  one  of  the  best  in 

the  world.  It  is  a  British  naval  base  and  a  great  commercial  center.  What 

do  you  think  is  the  business  of  the  different  boats  in  the  harbor  ?   Why  is 

Hongkong  a  very  valuable  British  possession  ? 

Asia  and  Europe.  The  wall  about  Peking  has  now  been 
broken,  and  a  modern  railroad  comes  into  the  city 
(Fig.  487).  _ 

Tientsin  is  the  port  of  Peking  and  the  outlet  of  a  large 
part  of  Manchuria.  It  is  also  the  northern  terminus  of  the 
Grand  Canal.  Hankow  is  the  great  tea  market  of  China. 
Shanghai,  the  port  of  the  Yangtze  River,  is  an  important 
commercial  city  (Fig.  484).  The  increase  in  foreign  trade 
at  Shanghai  has  been  due  largely  to  the  British.  Canton, 
located  on  the  delta  of  the  Si  River,  is  the  chief  sea- 
port of  southern  China.  It  is  a  center  of  the  silk  trade 
and  an  important  manufacturing  city  (Fig.  493). 


I..    M.    .\l-M  IM.'lll 


Fig.  492.   These  stone  elephants  guard  the  avenue  leading  to  the  tombs  of 

the  kings  at  Nanking.  The  stones  on  their  backs  have  been  tossed  there  by 

passers-by  to  find  out  whether  their  wishes  would  come  true.   If  the  stone 

stays  on  the  elephant's  back,  it  is  a  sign  of  good  luck 

eastern  portion  is  well  watered  and  suitable  for  agri- 
culture; it  has  become  very  prosperous.  In  the  high- 
lands rich  deposits  of  gold,  copper,  and  lead  have  been 


found.    Many  Chinese  farmers  live  in  Manchuria,  where 
The  island  of  Hongkong  (Fig.  491)  is  a  possession  of     they  raise  millet,  wheat,  and  beans.  Mukden  is  the  capital. 


the  British  nation. 
Victoria  is  the  cap- 
ital. This  little 
island  is  located 
at  the  mouth  of 
the  Si  River  and 
is  about  90  miles 
south  of  the  city 
of  Canton.  The 
British  people  who 
live  here  have 
established  mills 
for  cotton  spin- 
ning and  sugar 
refining,  and  ship- 
building and  re- 
pairing are  also 
carried  on.  The 
Chinese  silk  and 
tea  trade  is  con- 
trolled to  a  great 
extent  by  Hong- 
kong   merchants. 


Fig.  493.  The  Si  River  at  Canton  is  crowded  with  boats  of  all  kinds.  Many  of  the  junks  serve  as 
homes  for  the  poorer  Chinese  families,  especially  those  whose  daily  work  is  connected  with  the  river 
in  some  way.  When  the  children  play  on  the  decks,  they  are  tied  with  long  ropes,  and  each  has  a 
strange  sort  of  life-preserver  strapped  to  his  back.  If  he  falls  overboard,  the  life-preserver  keeps 
his  head  above  water  until  someone  pulls  him  out  by  the  rope 


Mongolia.  West 
of  Manchuria  is  a 
vast  territory,  not 
very  well  defined, 
which  is  known 
as  Mongolia.  It 
is  chiefly  a  desert 
country,  because  it 
is  surrounded  by 
high  mountains. 
There  are  oases  at 
the  foot  of  the 
mountains,  where 
springs  are  located 
or  where  streams 
from  the  moun- 
tains make  it  pos- 
sible to  irrigate 
the  land.  Many 
of  the  people  raise 
sheep  and  horses, 
which  they  must 
drive   from   place 


CHINA 


245 


to  place  to  find  good  pasturage.  Urga,  the  largest  town, 
is  the  holy  city  of  the  northern  Buddhists. 

Mongolia  has  been  quite  independent  in  its  govern- 
ment, and  many  Russians  came  into  this  territory  to  help 
develop  its  resources.  Recently,  however,  Mongolia  has 
asked  for  a  closer  association  with  the  government  of 
China  proper,  and  the  request  has  been  granted. 

Sinkiang.  Just  east  of  the  Pamir  is  a  dry  region  known 
as  Eastern  Turkestan  or  Chinese  Turkestan.  This  land 
and  some  adjoining  districts  form  the  Chinese  province 
of  Sinkiang.  This  province  is  so  shut  in  by  mountains 
that  rain-bringing  winds  do  not  reach  it.  For  the  same 
reason  it  is  difficult  for  people  to  reach  this  land.  The 
little  towns  are  near  the  base  of  the  mountains,  where 
oases  are  found  and  water  is  available.  Kashgar  and 
Yarkand  are  two  walled  cities,  each  located  in  an  oasis. 


Fig.  494.  This  woman  is  fishing  with  her  trained  water  birds,  called  cormo- 
rants. At  her  command  they  dive,  catch  the  fish,  and  fly  back  with  them 
to  the  boat.  About  each  cormorant's  neck  is  a  ring  or  piece  of  string  to  keep 
him  from  swallowing  the  fish.   Why  are  fish  so  important  to  the  Chinese  ? 

Tibet  is  a  large,  semi-independent  province  of  China. 
It  includes  the  highest  plateau  in  the  world.  Tibet  is 
completely  surrounded  by  high  mountains,  and  on  the 
south  are  the  magnificent  Himalayas  (Fig.  469).  Lassa, 
the  capital,  is  a  picturesque  city  with  many  beautiful 
temples.  The  temples  are  gilded  and  the  roofs  of  the 
buildings  are  very  commonly  red.  Lassa  is  the  center  of 
the  Buddhist  religion  and  is  considered  a  sacred  city. 

There  is  a  short,  dry  summer  and  a  long,  cold  winter 
in  this  plateau  country,  and  therefore  little  use  can  be 
made  of  the  rich  soils.  The  people  raise  yaks,  sheep,  and 
goats.  The  yak  is  as  important  to  these  people  as  the 
reindeer  is  to  the  people  of  the  tundra,  or  the  camel  to 
the  people  of  the  desert.  It  has  a  thick,  woolly  coat,  and 
the  hide  is  used  in  various  ways,  sometimes  for  clothing, 
sometimes  for  making  tents  or  utensils.  The  people  use 
the  milk  of  the  yak  and  have  trained  these  animals  to 
be  beasts  of  burden.  The  yak  is  one  of  the  few  animals 
that  can  work  as  beasts  of  burden  at  great  heights. 


)  E.  M.  Newman 

Fig.  495.   The  sacred  Altar  of  Heaven  in  Peking  is  a  beautiful  triple-roofed 

tower  standing  on  the  highest  of  three  marble  terraces.   Once  a  year  the 

emperor  used  to  go  to  this  altar  to  make  a  sacrifice  to  heaven.  Since  China 

has  become  a  republic  the  president  still  observes  this  custom 

Home  work.  1.  Read  Sven  Hedin's  description  of  his  travels 
in  Turkestan  and  Tibet.  Get  one  of  his  books  from  some  library. 
2.  Look  up  Peking  in  some  good  reference  book  and  learn  about 
the  Forbidden  City. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Why  should  the  people  of 
the  United  States  be  interested  in  China  ?  2.  What  trade  have  we 
now  with  China  ?  3.  What  have  you  seen  that  surely  came  from 
China  ?  4.  What  have  you  eaten  that  may  have  come  from  China  ? 
5.  What  have  you  worn  or  seen  other  people  wear  that  probably 
came  from  China  ?  6.  From  what  American  seaports  are  vessels 
sent  to  China  ?  7.  What  are  the  chief  seaports  of  China  ?  8.  What 
is  the  capital  of  the  Republic  of  China  ?  9.  What  is  the  largest 
city  ?    10.  What  is  the  British  port  on  the  east  coast  of  China  ? 

11.  What  are  the 
chief  natural  re- 
sources of  China? 

12.  What  prevents 
the  Chinese  from 
migrating  into  the 
less  crowded  parts 
of    their    country  ? 

13.  What  is  the 
chief  food  of  the 
poorer  people  of 
China?  14.  Name 
three  large  rivers 
of  China. 

15.  What  river 
is  called  "  China's 
Sorrow  "  ?  Why  ? 
16.  What  are  the 
occupations  of  the 
people  in  the  high 
mountains  and  pla- 
teaus of  western 
China?  17.  What 
does  China  need 
most  at  present? 


(£)  E.  31.  »«maa 

Fig.  496.  These  Chinese  children  spend  part  of 
each  day  in  school.  After  school  they  cannot  play 
until  they  have  collected  wood  enough  for  the 
family  to  burn  the  next  day  for  cooking  and  boil- 
ing water  for  their  tea 


246 


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248 


JAPAN 


H.  C.  White  Co. 


Fig.  800.    These  Japanese  laborers  are  setting  out 

young  rice  shoots  in  even  rows  in  the  mud  and  water 

of  an  irrigated  field.   Here  the  rice  will  grow  until 

it  is  ready  to  harvest 


Climate.  The  Cities.  Tokyo1  is  the  capital  of  the  empire,  with  a 
spring  and  au-  population  of  over  2,000,000  (Fig.  504).  It  is  one  of  the 
tumn  are  the  foremost  cities,  in  the  Orient.  It  has  electric  cars,  modern 
most  desirable  stores,  and  excellent  train  service.  The  beautiful  imperial 
seasons  to  make  palace,  the  home  of  the  emperor  of  Japan,  is  in  Tokyo, 
a  trip  through  The  imperial  university  is  also  located  in  this  city,  and 
Japan.  June  is  there  are  numerous  parks,  temples,  and  shrines  here, 
the  wet  month, 
and  July,  Au- 
gust, and  the 
first  weeks  of 
September  are 
very  hot  in  the 
lowland  areas. 
In  general  the 
climate  of  the 
islands  is  mild 
throughout  the 
year.     This   is 


because  Japan  is  surrounded  by  a  great  ocean,  and 
weather  changes  are  not  so  extreme  or  so  sudden  as 
in   the  interior  of  great  land  areas. 

Occupations.  The  population  of  Japan  is  very  dense, 
and  in  order  to  provide  food  for  the  people  the  soil  is 
cultivated  in  a  most  intensive  way.  Even  the  mountain 
slopes  are  terraced,  and  walls  are  built  to  prevent  the 
earth  from  sliding.  The  Japanese  produce  many  varieties 
of  rice,  which  is  the  chief  food  for  most  of  the  people 
(Figs.  500,  501).  The  tea  from  Japan  is  famous  (Fig.  502). 
Indigo,  cotton,  hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco  are  also  raised. 


£)  E.  M.  Newman 

Fig.  502.  The  tea  pickers  in  Japan  are  mostly  women  and  girls,  who 
work  on  the  hillsides  plucking  the  tender  green  leaves  from  the  bushes. 
After  they  are  picked,  the  leaves  are  wilted  over  a  fire,  rolled  to  squeeze 
out  the  sap,  dried,  sorted,  and  packed  for  export.  Why  is  tea  grown  on 
the  hillsides  in  Japan  ? 

Yokohama1  is  the  port  of  Tokyo  (Fig.  503)  and  has  an 
excellent  harbor  with  protected  waters.  It  is  the  first  port 


Very  few  animals  are  kept  on  the  islands,  because  ani-  reached  by  trans-Pacific  liners  from  America.  In  the 
mals  use  large  quantities  of  food.  There  are  abundant  harbor  of  Yokohama  the  traveler  will  see  vessels  from 
fish  in  the  shallow  waters  around  the  islands,  and  fish     America,  China,  Australia,  India,  and  Europe.     Osaka 


is  one  of  the  chief  foods  of  the 
Japanese  people. 

Mulberry  trees  are  grown  to  pro- 
vide food  for  the  silkworms.  Japan 
supplies  about  30  per  cent  of  the 
total  amount  of  silk  raised  in  the 
world,  and  more  than  half  of  all 
that  we  receive  in  the  United  States 
(Figs.  497,  498,  499). 

The  manufacture  of  paper,  mat- 
ting, pottery,  metal  goods,  and 
straw  braids  has  long  been  carried 
on  in  Japan.  The  spinning  indus- 
try is  rapidly  becoming  more  and 
more  important.  Silk  is  manufac- 
tured around  Tokyo,  and  large  cotr 
ton  mills  are  located  at  Osaka. 
The  raw  cotton  is  imported  mostly 
from  India  and  the  United  States. 


Fig.  501.  The  Japanese  thresh  rice  by  drawing  it 
through  wooden  rakes.  The  rice  grains  drop  into  the 
baskets,  leaving  the  straw  in  good  condition  f  orthatch- 
ing  roofs  and  making  hats,  baskets,  sandals,  and  mats 


is  the  largest  commercial  center  and 
one  of  the  most  progressive  indus- 
trial centers.  Its  population  is  over 
1,000,000.  The  harbor  at  Osaka  is 
poor,  and  most  of  the  trade  of  this 
city  is  carried  on  through  the  neigh- 
boring port  of  Kobe,  which  has  an 
excellent  harbor.  Nagasaki  is  an  in- 
dustrial center  and  a  very  old  port, 
where  vessels  commonly  stop  to  get 
a  supply  of  coal.  Kyoto,  the  former 
capital  of  Japan,  is  an  important 
manufacturing  city  and  one  of  the 
chief  railway  centers. 

1  On  September  1, 1923,  a  very  severe  earth- 
quake occurred  in  Japan.  The  earthquake 
shocks  and  the  fire  that  followed  almost  com- 
pletely destroyed  Tokyo  and  Yokohama.  Im- 
mediately the  Japanese  people  began  to  make 
plans  for  rebuilding  their  capital  and  its  port. 


JAPAN 


249 


Chosen  (Korea).  This  part  of 
the  Japanese  empire  is  chiefly 
an  agricultural  land,  but  the 
methods  of  cultivating  the  soil 
are  backward  and  primitive. 
Rice,  wheat,  beans,  tobacco,  and 
cotton  are  the  more  important 
crops.  In  the  mountains  gold 
mining  is  carried  on,  and  copper, 
iron,  and  coal  are  known  to  be 
abundant.  The  means  of  com- 
munication are  poor,  and  this 
condition  is  delaying  industrial 
development.  Keijo  (Seoul)  is  the 
largest  city  and  Fusan,  on  the 
southern  coast,  is  the  chief  port. 

The  Koreans  belong  to  the 
Mongolian  race  but  form  a 
nationality  distinct  from  that 
of  the  Japanese  or  Chinese. 

Taiwan  (Formosa)  was  ceded  to  Japan  by  China  in 
1895.  In  the  dense  forests  on  this  island  some  of  the 
tribes  are  still  uncivilized.  Camphor  is  the  chief  prod- 
uct, and  nearly  all  the  camphor  in  the  world  comes  from 
this  island.  On  the  lowlands  bordering  the  coast  the 
inhabitants  raise  large  crops  of  rice  and   sugar  cane. 


1  £  Underwood 


Fig.  503.  This  is  a  street  scene  in  Yokohama.  Notice  the  curious 

signs  over  the  shops  and  the  jinrikishas  which  the  Japanese 

use  for  riding  about  the   city.    What  is  the   population  of 

Yokohama  ?  Can  you  explain  its  commercial  importance  ? 


as  years  go  on  it  is  likely  that 
a  larger  and  larger  proportion 
of  the  Japanese  people  will  be 
engaged  in  industrial  work. 

Problems    and    review    questions. 

1.  Why  do  Japanese  young  men  come 
to  our  universities  for  an  education  ? 

2.  What  are  the  chief  occupations  of 
the  Japanese  ?  3.  What  does  Japan 
most  need  ?  4.  What  industries  have 
the  Japanese  undertaken  ?  5.  Name 
three  important  cities.  6.  What  winds 
bring  rain  to  Japan  ?  7.  What  land 
on  the  continent  of  Asia  does  Japan 
possess  ?  8.  Where  does  the  emperor 
live?  9.  What  cities  are  leading  in- 
dustrial centers  ? 

INDO-CHINA 


D  £.  H.  JNeuman 

Fig.  S04.  Many  of  the  streets  in  the  business  section  of  Tokyo  have  a  very 
modern  appearance.  The  office  buildings,  stores,  electric-car  lines,  and 
telegraph  poles  are  not  unlike  those  of  an  American  city.  Locate  Tokyo 
on  your  map.  How  does  its  population  compare  with  that  of  the  largest 
cities  in  the  United  States  ? 

Future.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  Japan 
is  destined  to  become  one  of  the  world's  great  industrial 
nations.  The  Japanese  people  have  already  proved  them- 
selves very  skillful  in  the  industrial  arts,  and  the 
amount  of  manufacturing  increases  every  year.  Power 
is  provided  by  the  coal  fields,  the  natural  oil,  and  the 
many  streams,  some  of  which  are  already  harnessed  to 
produce  hydroelectric  energy.  Agriculture  will  always 
be  important  in  such  a  densely  populated  country,  but 


Indo-China  comprises  a  group 
of  small  countries  between  the 
South  China  Sea  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  countries 
on  the  east  are  under  the  protection  of  France.  Siam  is 
an  independent  kingdom,  and  Burma  is  a  part  of  India 
and  so  under  British  rule. 

French  Indo-China.  In  the  northern  part  of  French 
Indo-China  there  are  several  mountain  chains,  and  the 
rivers  which  flow  southward  bring  rich  soils  to  the  low- 
lands. In  the  mountains  the  rainfall  is  heavy  because  of 
the  monsoon  winds  of  the  summer  months.  Most  of  the 
people  live  on  the  lowlands,  where  many  of  them  are 
engaged  in  raising  rice,  fruit,  cotton,  and  sugar.  These 
are  just  the  prod- 
ucts that  would 
be  expected  on  a 
warm,  moist  low- 
land. Coffee  and 
tea  are  the  chief 
products  raised  on 
the  higher  lands. 
Some  fishing  is 
carried  on  in  the 
lakes  and  streams 
of  the  deltas  and 
along  the  coasts. 
The  only  settle- 
ments are  near 
the  rivers.  These 
villages  are  shut 
in  by  dense  tropi- 
cal forests  which 
yield  bamboo  and 
other  woods. 


Uodarwood  x  Underwood 


Fig.  505.    A  Korean  house  is  built  by  weaving  a 

latticework  of  grass  ropes  between  wooden  posts 

and  beams,  and  building  against  it  a  wall  of  stones 

held  together  by  mud  plaster 


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INDIA 


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Fig.  507.   These  are  Hindu  pilgrims  at  the  ghats,  or  bathing  places,  of 

Benares.   Many  of  them  have  come  from  distant  parts  of  India,  for  Benares 

is  their  holy  city,  and  every  good  Hindu  must  bathe  at  least  once  in  the 

sacred  waters  of  the  Ganges  to  wash  away  his  sins 

INDIA 

The  Indian  Empire  includes  the  great  peninsula  of 
India  and  those  adjacent  lands  which  are  directly  or  in- 
directly under  British  control.  Burma  on  the  east,  Balu- 
chistan on  the  west,  and  the  small  state  of  Sikhim  in 
a  pass  to  Tibet  are  thus  parts  of  India. 

People.  There  are  many  British  people  in  India.  Most 
of  them  are  government  officials  or  soldiers,  but  some 
are  tradesmen.  The  king  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
has  the  title  of  "  Emperor  of  India,"  and  he  appoints  a 
governor-general,  or  viceroy,  of  India,  who  usually  serves 
for  a  term  of  five  years. 

About  70  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  of  India  are 
Hindus  (Fig.  507),  who  belong  to  the  white  race  and  follow 
in  their  religious  beliefs  the  teaching  of  Brahma.  This 
religion  teaches  the  doctrine  of  caste,  or  class  distinctions. 
Some  are  born  in  a  high  caste,  others  in  a  low  caste  or  in 
some  intermediate  caste.  Those  who  are  members  of  one 
caste  cannot  associate  with  members  of  another  caste,  or , 
class.  This  doctrine  is  quite  opposed  to  our  belief  that 
all  men  are  born  free  and  equal.  Brahmanism  has  helped 
also  to  keep  many  superstitions  alive  among  the  people. 

Tropical  jungles.  In  the  great  jungles  of  India  there 
yet  remain  many  tigers,  leopards,  bears,  and  elephants. 
There  are  poisonous  snakes  here,  too,  and  thousands  of 
people  and  millions  of  animals  die  each  year  from  snake 
bites.  The  cobra,  one  of  the  most  dangerous  snakes  in 
the  world,  is  a  sacred  animal.  The  native  people,  because 
of  their  religion,  would  not  kill  an  animal,  but  they  like 
to  have  other  people  kill  this  snake.  The  cow  and  the 
monkey  are  also  sacred  animals  in  India. 

There  are  numerous  insects  in  this  hot,  moist  land,  and 
they  carry  disease  just  as  they  do  in  all  tropical  regions. 


Climate.  When  the  monsoon  winds  of  the  summer 
season  strike  the  high  Himalaya  Mountains,  they  cause 
heavy  rains.  Forty  inches  of  rain  falling  in  one  day  has 
been  recorded  at  one  place  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
mountains.  The  rainfall  during  a  year  on  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains  measures  from  400  to 
500  inches,  and  in  very  wet  years  it  has  been  known  to 
reach  600  inches.  Such  heavy  rains  mean  that  in  places 
all  of  the  soil  is  washed  from  the  mountain  slopes,  leav- 
ing them  so  bare  that  nothing  can  grow  there.  The 
soils  washed  from  the  Himalayas  are  spread  out  over 
the  lowlands  of  northern  India. 

The  heavy  rains  on  the  mountain  slopes  explain  the 
large  rivers  which  make  it  possible  to  irrigate  the  rich 
soils  of  the  plains  and  thus  raise  food  for  the  millions 
of  people  who  live  there.  During  the  summer  season 
rains  fall  on  the  higher  parts  of  the  Plateau  of  India. 
Before  the  people  of  India  learned  to  store  the  water 
and  to  irrigate  the  lands,  terrible  famines  often  occurred. 
Famines  are  not  so  bad  now,  because  of  the  reservoirs 
and  because  more  railroads  have  been  built  and  help 
can  be  sent  to  the  people. 

The  part  of  India  which  lies  south  of  the  Himalayas 
is  never  very  cold,  because  its  latitude  is  low  and  it  is 
sheltered  from  the  cold  north  winds  by  the  mountains. 
It  is  never  so  hot,  however,  as  the  plateaus  of  Iran  and 
Arabia,  because  of  the  sea  breezes  which  always  help  to 
moderate  a  climate.  Above  7000  feet  the  climate  in 
India  is  suitable  for  Europeans  and  Americans. 

Natural  regions.  The  natural  divisions  of  India  are 
very  clearly  defined.  In  the  north  are  the  bold  and 
rugged  slopes  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains.  These  are  the 
highest  mountains  in  the  world,  and  they  rise  abruptly 


©  Publishers'  Pttolo  Service,  Iuo. 


Fig.  508.   The  oxcart  is  a  common  sight  in  the  streets  of  Bombay,  where 

the  humped  oxen  are  used  very  generally  as  draft  animals  because  of  their 

great  strength.   Notice  the  modern  public  buildings  in  the  background  of 

this  view.  How  does  Bombay  rank  in  size  among  the  cities  of  India  ? 


INDIA 


253 


Fig.  509.  This  man  is  at  work  at  his  bench  carving 

an  elephant  out  of  ivory.  The  people  of  India  have 

been  famous  always  for  their  delicate  carving  and 

exquisite  metal  work 


from  the  broad  lowland  plain  of 
northern  India.  This  fertile  and 
very  densely  populated  lowland  plain 
extends  from  the  base  of  the  Hima- 
laya Mountains  southward  to  the 
Plateau  of  India,  spreading  out  east- 
ward to  the  mountains  of  Burma 
and  westward  to  the  highlands  of 
Baluchistan. 

The  three  great  rivers  of  India  — 
the  Ganges,  the  Brahmaputra,  and 
the  Indus  —  rise  in  the  Plateau  of 
Tibet  and,  after  leaving  the  Hima- 
laya Mountains,  cross  this  lowland 
plain  to  the  sea. 

In  the  portion  of  the  plain  made  by 
the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra  rivers 
the  climate  is  sufficiently  moist  to 
permit  agriculture,  but  irrigation  is 
practiced  to  supplement  the  rainfall. 

The  seaward  portion  of  the  Plain  of  the  Indus  is  dry, 
and  as  great  quantities  of  food  cannot  be  raised  there, 
this  district  is  not  so  densely  populated  as  the  Plain 

of    the    Ganges. 
The  vast  Pla- 
teau of  India,  or 
the   Dekkan,  as 
it  is  often  called, 
forms  the  greater 
part  of  the  pen- 
insula of  India. 
In  some  parts  of 
this  plateau  the 
surface  is  flat,  but 
in   many    places 
it  is  broken  by 
rugged  ridges  of 
bare  rock. 
Natural   resources.    The   rich   soils   that   have  been 
washed  from  the  highlands  by  the  rivers  and  spread 
out  to  make  the  lowlands  are  the  most  valuable  of  the 
natural  resources  of  India. 

Coal,  gold,  and  petroleum  are  the  three  most  impor- 
tant mineral  resources.  There  are,  however,  many  other 
minerals  in  this  country.  The  forests  of  India  are  also 
very  valuable. 

Occupations.  The  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  of  first 
importance  and  occupies  the  time  of  most  of  the  people. 
The  raising  of  large  quantities  of  sugar,  rice,  tea,  wheat, 
and  cotton  makes  it  possible  for  so  many  people  to  live 
here.  Jute  fiber  made  from  the  jute  plant  is  used  in  man- 
ufacturing burlap,  twine,  paper,  and  many  other  useful 


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Fig.  510.    These  elephants,  which  belong  to  the 

sacred  temple  at  Kandy,  Ceylon,  are  having  their 

afternoon  bath.  The  elephants  in  India  are  trained 

by  the  natives  to  do  many  kinds  of  hard  work 


articles.  Next  in  importance  is  the 
pasturing  of  stock.  Forestry  also 
furnishes  employment  to  a  great 
number  of  men.  Nearly  two  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  million  people 
engage  in  agriculture,  stock-raising, 
or  forestry.  That  is  more  than  twice 
the  number  of  people  living  in  the 
United  States. 

In  plowing  and  cultivating  the 
soil  the  water  buffalo  and  humped 
cattle  are  generally  used.  Elephants 
do  the  heavy  work,  much  as  horses 
do  in  some  countries.  Horses  are 
used  for  riding,  and  cattle  are  used 
almost  entirely  as  draft  animals  or 
as  beasts  of  burden.  The  buffalo  is 
the  common  draft  animal  in  the 
very  wet  places,  but  the  camel  is 
used  in  the  very  dry  places. 
There  are  many  people  in  India  who  have  learned  the 
decorative  arts.  There  are  those  who  do  carving  in  ivory 
(Fig.  509),  and  others  who  do  beautiful  work  in  embroid- 
ery and  in  making  fine  silk  and  cotton  cloth.  Excellent 
carpets  are  also  made  in  India.  The  cotton  and  jute 
mills  employ  half  a  million  people.  Most  of  the  arts 
have  been  conducted  in  a  very  primitive  way,  but  to-day 
machinery  is  being  introduced. 

Cities.  Calcutta  is  the  largest  city  and  the  most  im- 
portant seaport  (Fig.  511).  Until  1911  it  was  the  capital 
of  India,  but  Delhi  is  now  the  capital  (Fig.  512).  Bombay- 
is  a  very  busy  cotton-manufacturing  center  (Fig.  508). 
The  cotton  comes  from  the  lowland  northwest  of  the 
Dekkan.  Madras,  which  is  located  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  peninsula,  serves  as  the  port  for  southeastern  India. 


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Courteej  of  Williams,  Brown  k  Earlo 

Fig.  511.   This  is  one  of  the  beautiful  parks  in  Calcutta.   In  the  background 

is  the  temple,  built  in  the  elaborate  style  which  is  characteristic  of  the 

native  Indian  architecture.   Calcutta  was  formerly  the  capital  of  India  and 

is  noted  for  its  fine  buildings.   What  is  the  present  capital  of  India  ? 


254 


INDIA 


D  Publishers'  Photo  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  512.  This  is  a  street  in  Delhi,  the  capital  of  India.  In  the  background 

are  the  domes  and  minarets  of  the  famous  Jama  Masjid  Mosque,  said  to  be 

the  oldest  mosque  in  the  world.   In  summer  the  residence  of  the  government 

is  moved  from  Delhi  to  Simla.   Can  you  explain  why  ? 

Burma.  Burma  is  a  land  of  narrow  valleys  and  heavily 
forested  mountains,  with  a  population  of  about  twelve 
million  people.  Far  back  in  the  mountains  there  are  un- 
civilized tribes  and  wild  beasts  like  those  in  the  forests 
and  jungles  of  other  parts  of  India.  Teak,  rubber,  and 
rice,  but  chiefly  rice,  are  the  leading  products  of  Burma, 
and  rice  is  the  chief  export.  The  lowlands  are  hot  and 
moist,  and  near  the  coast  the  rainfall  is  from  100  to  200 
inches  a  year.    See  map  on  page  256. 

Baluchistan.  The  plateau  portion  of  western  India  is 
a  part  of  the  Plateau  of  Iran  ;  it  is  a  stony  desert,  frozen 
in  winter  and  very  hot  in  summer.  There  are  a  few 
oases  near  the  base  of  the  mountains,  and  each  oasis  is 
marked  by  palm  trees.  Where  the  land  is  well  watered, 
excellent  crops  are  raised.  Large  quantities  of  dates  are 
produced  and  packed  for  shipment. 

Sheep  and  goats  are  cared  for  by  the  native  people, 
who  drive  them  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  grass. 
Both  Burma  and  Baluchistan  have  prospered  under  Brit- 
ish rule.  Railroads  have  been  built,  irrigation  works 
improved,  and  disease  and  famine  checked,  and  the 
populations  have  increased. 

Ceylon.  The  island  of  Ceylon  has  a  small  lowland 
in  the  north  where  the  climate  is  tropical,  and  rice, 
rubber,  cacao,  and  coconut  palms  are  raised.  The  cen- 
tral and  southern  parts  of  the  island  are  occupied  by 
a  mountainous  plateau.  On  the  southwestern  slopes  of 
the  plateau  are  great  tea  plantations.  The  abundant 
rainfall  on  these  slopes  is  so  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
the  tea  that  the  leaves  can  be  gathered  every  two  weeks. 
The  plateau  is  also  rich  in  minerals  and  precious  stones. 
The  chief  mineral  is  graphite,  and  Ceylon  is  the  leading 
graphite-producing  country  of  the  world.  Colombo  is  the 
principal  city  of  Ceylon  (Fig.  514). 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  In  what  part  of  India  do 
most  of  the  people  live  ?  2.  What  are  the  chief  foods  ?  3.  What 
are  the  chief  products  for  export  ?  4.  When  is  the  rainy  season  ? 
Why  does  it  occur  then  ?  5.  Why  are  there  very  heavy  rains  on 
the  south  slopes  of  the  Himalaya  Mountains  ? 

C.  In  what  part  of  India  is  it  best  for  Europeans  or  Americans 
to  live  ?  7.  What  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people  in  India  ? 
8.  Why  are  there  famines  in  India?  9.  How  could  they  be 
avoided  ?    10.  Name  the  capital  and  the  leading  seaports. 

11.  Why  is  it  never  very  cold  in  southern  India  ?  12.  What 
have  you  ever  seen  that  came  from  India  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Read  "  Kim,"  by  Rudyard  Kipling.  2.  Find 
out  how  sago  grows ;  how  the  native  people  prepare  it ;  how  we 
use  it  in  the  United  States. 

SMALL  COUNTRIES  IN  THE  HIMALAYA 
MOUNTAINS 

Nepal  is  an  independent  kingdom  in  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  500  miles  long  and  150  miles  wide.  The 
inhabitants  are  a  very  busy  people.  They  raise  cattle, 
wheat,  rice,  tobacco,  and  spices.  They  export  some  of 
these  products  and  take  in  exchange  sheep,  goats,  sugar, 
oils,  and  manufactured  goods. 

Bhutan  is  another  independent  state  among  the 
Himalaya  Mountains  which  is  closed  to  Europeans.  It 
has  wonderful  mountain  peaks  and  glaciers  and  a  great 
variety  of  vegetation. 

It  is  very  interesting  to  find  in  the  highest  moun- 
tains of  the  world  small  groups  of  people  who  would 
rather  be  independent  than  to  belong  to  a  large  and 
powerful  nation. 

Home  work.  Find  other  examples  of  liberty-loving  people 
who  have  established  independent  nations  in  mountain  countries. 


CourtesY  of  Williams,  liruwu,  It  tarle 


Fig.  513.   This  is  the  market  place  at  Quetta  in  Baluchistan.    Quetta  is  a 

strongly  fortified  British  military  station  and  is  connected  with  the  port  of 

Karachi  by  a  railroad.  Locate  Quetta  on  your  map.    What  things  should 

you  expect  to  find  on  sale  in  the  bazaars  of  the  market  place  ? 


EAST  INDIES 


255 


EAST  INDIES 

Most  of  the  islands  southeast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula 
and  north  of  Australia  belong  to  the  Dutch  people. 
See  map  'on  page  250. 

The  islands  are  mountainous,  and  most  of  the  moun- 
tains are  of  volcanic  origin.  The  cultivation  of  rubber 
is  a  leading  industry.  The  rubber  plantations  on  these 
islands  and  on  the  Malay  Peninsula  are  the  cbief  source 
of  the  world's  rubber  supply.  Petroleum  is  a  second 
product  of  importance.  The  most  valuable  oil  fields  are 
in  Sumatra  and  Borneo.  On  the  narrow  lowlands,  where 
it  is  always  warm,  the  native  people  raise  the  sago 
palms  from  which  they  get  a  large  proportion  of  their 
food.    Spices  are  also  grown. 

The  island  of  Java  is  the  most  advanced  in  the  group. 
The  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  every  tropical  and  temperate 
crop  can  be  grown  on  the  island  if  land  high  enough 
above  sea  level  is  selected.  The  principal  exports  are 
sugar,  coffee,  tea,  indigo,  cinchona,  tobacco,  rubber,  copra, 
and  tin. 

The  capital  of  Java  is  Batavia  (Fig.  515). 

It  is  always  hot  and  moist  in  this  part  of  the  world, 
and  Europeans  do  not  enjoy  the  climate.  A  few,  how- 
ever, must  live  here  to  direct  the  native  laborers. 

Review  questions.  1.  What  European  nations  hold  possessions 
in  the  East  Indies  ?  2.  Dgscribe  the  physical  form,  or  relief,  of 
the  islands.  3.  Describe  and  explain  the  climate.  4.  What  are  the 
chief  occupations  ?    5.  What  are  the  chief  exports  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Make  a  list  of  the  common  domesticated  animals 
of  Asia,  and  indicate  what  each  one  is  valuable  for.  2.  Bring 
your  pictures  of  Asia  to  school  and  plan  a  picture  exhibit. 


Fig.  514.  This  is  the  passenger  landing  and  customhouse  at  Colombo. 
Beyond  is  the  harbor,  which  is  protected  by  three  great  breakwaters.  The 
southwest  one  breaks  the  force  of  the  waves  in  the  southwest  monsoon 
season.  In  what  months  is  this  ?  What  are  Ceylon's  exports  ?  Where  are 
most  of  them  sent  ?  What  are  its  imports  ? 


Fig.  515.   This  is  a  canal  in  Batavia,  the  capital  of  Java.   Batavia  is  the 

great  trading  center  for  the  Dutch  East  Indies.   Its  canals  are  full  of  little 

boats  laden  with  the  products  of  the  other  islands,  waiting  to  be  exported. 

What  are  some  of  these  products  ? 

GENERAL  EEVIEW  FOR  ASIA 

1.  What  is  the  most  nourishing  cereal  grown  on  the  steppes  ? 
2.  What  conditions  are  favorable  for  raising  rice  ?  3.  Where 
is  the  taiga?  4.  What  palm  thrives  in  rainless  regions  but 
needs  water  at  its  roots  ?  5.  What  part  of  Asia  has  conditions 
favorable  for  raising  grapes,  olives,  and  figs  ? 

6.  Rice,  wheat,  the  large  and  the  small  millet,  and  the  soya 
bean  are  the  five  sacred  plants  in  what  country  ?  7.  In  what 
country  are  cows,  monkeys,  and  the  cobra  sacred  ?  8.  On  the 
leaves  of  what  tree  are  silkworms  fed  ?  9.  What  country 
produces  most  of  the  silk  sent  to  the  United  States  ? 

10.  What  is  the  most  important  animal  on  the  tundras? 
on  the  richer  steppes  ?  on  the  poor  steppes  ?  in  the  high 
mountains?  in  the  desert?  on  the  high  Plateau  of  Tibet? 
11.  What  animal  can  bear  extreme  cold  ?  What  one  can  bear 
extreme  height  ?    What  one  can  bear  extreme  drought  ? 

12.  What  animals  can  best  bear  intense  heat?  13.  What 
are  the  two  chief  occupations  of  the  people  of  Asia  ?  14.  Ex- 
plain the  oases  in  the  deserts.  15.  Name  and  locate  five  impor- 
tant seaports.  16.  Why  are  there  so  few  large  interior  cities  ? 
17.  What  countries  have  good  industrial  prospects  ? 

18.  What  parts  of  Asia  will  remain  unsettled?  Why? 
19.  What  winds  are  most  helpful  to  agriculture  in  Asia? 
Why?  20.  Where  do  the  greatest  extremes  in  temperature 
occur  ?  Why  ?  21.  Where  are  the  highest  mountains  in  the 
world  ?    22.  Where  is  the  "  Roof  of  the  World  "  ? 

23.  Name  and  locate  five  long  rivers  in  Asia.  24.  In  what 
country  is  there  coal  and  iron  in  abundance  and  plenty  of 
cheap  labor  ?  25.  In  what  countries  of  Asia  are  beautiful  rugs 
made  ?  26.  What  European  nations  have  large  possessions  in 
Asia?    27.  What  country  owns  most  of  the  East  Indies? 

28.  Where  is  nomadic  life  common?  29.  Where  are  the 
chief  settlements  in  Siberia?  30.  What  are  the  chief  prod- 
ucts that  the  United  States  imports  from  Asia?  31.  From 
what  part  of  Asia  does  most  of  the  world's  tin  come  ? 

32.  What  will  be  of  the  greatest  help  to  Asiatic  countries 
in  their  industrial  and  commercial  development?  33.  From 
what  American  ports  do  vessels  start  for  Asia  ? 


256 


COMPARATIVE  MAP  STUDIES 


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AUSTRALIA,  NEW  ZEALAND,  AND  PACIFIC  ISLANDS 


AUSTRALIA 

Australia,  the  smallest  continent,  is  part  of  the  British 
Commonwealth  and  a  land  from  which  we  receive  large 
quantities  of  wool,  hides,  skins,  and  copper.  It  is  the 
only  continent,  except  uninhabited  Antarctica,  which  is 
entirely  within  the  southern  hemisphere.  Study  each  of 
the  pictures  from  Fig.  516  to  Fig.  520. 

People.  Most  of  those  who  have  gone  to  live  in 
Australia  are  English-speaking  people,  and  they  have 
discouraged  the  importation  of  negroes  from  Africa  and 
of  laborers  from 
India  and  China. 
More  help  is  needed 
in  order  to  develop 
the  great  natural 
resources  of  the 
country,  but  the 
white  inhabitants 
prefer  to  develop 
them  less  rapidly 
and  to  keep  the 
country  for  those 
who  use  the  same 
language  and  have 
similar  ideals  of 
social,  industrial, 
and  political  life. 

In  central    and 

western  Australia 

there  are  many  tribes  of  native  people  who  live  in  most 

primitive  ways.    Their  relation  to  the  native  peoples  of 

New  Zealand,  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  of  Asia,  and  of 

Africa  is  not  known,  but  they  are  usually  classed  with  the 

black  race. 

Natural  Regions 

Australia  is  easily  divided  into  a  few  distinct  natural 
regions.   See  map  on  page  258. 

The  East  Australian  Highlands  are  made  up  of  a  series 
of  low  mountain  ranges  that  are  heavily  forested.  The 
Great  Dividing  Range,  the  New  England  Range,  and  the 
Blue  Mountains  are  included  within  this  highland  region. 

The  mineral  resources  and  the  water-power  of  this 
region  encourage  mining  and  manufacturing,  and  have 
led  to  the  great  industrial  development  of  New  South 
Wales,  Queensland,  and  Victoria. 

Most  of  the  white  people  of  Australia  live  in  this  por- 
tion of  the  continent,  and  it  is  rapidly  becoming  more 
and  more  densely  populated.    See  map  on  page  265. 


Fig.  516.   Australia  raises  more  sheep  than  any  other  country  in  the  world.  This  view  shows  a  group 

of  the  famous  merino  rams  which  are  pastured  there.  The  thoroughbred  merinos  have  the  longest, 

finest,  and  heaviest  fleece  of  any  breed  of  sheep.   Such  rams  as  these  yield  from  thirty  to  forty 

pounds  of  fine  wool  each.   Why  does  Australia  lead  the  world  in  the  production  of  wool  ? 


The  Victorian  Highlands  extend  in  an  east-and-west 
direction  near  the  southern  end  of  the  East  Australian 
Highlands,  and  just  south  of  the  Victorian  Highlands  is 
the  broad,  rich  Valley  of  Victoria. 

The  Great  Plains,  with  a  general  elevation  of  from 
500  to  1000  feet  above  sea  level,  occupy  a  central  posi- 
tion in  the  eastern  half  of  the  continent.  Fine  materials 
have  been  washed  from  the  higher  lands  and  spread  out 
on  these  plains,  so  that  now  there  is  a  rich  alluvial  soil 
in  this  region. 

When  white  people  first  came  to  Australia,  they  found 

a  scanty  growth  of 
poor  grass  on  the 
plains;  but  most 
of  this  land  has 
been  planted  with 
European  seed,  and 
now  a  great  part 
of  the  Great  Plains 
region  is  an  excel- 
lent pasture  land 
(Fig.  516).  Over 
this  region  graze 
flocks  of  merino 
sheep,  which  yield 
the  finest  wool  in 
the  world.  Much  of 
this  fine  wool  is 
used  in  the  mills 
of  England  and 
America.  Dairy  farming  is  being  rapidly  developed  in 
the  southern  portion  of  these  plains  (Fig.  517). 

The  plains  have  a  native  plant,  the  saltbush,  that  is 
very  valuable  in  stock-raising.  The  plant  contains  so 
much  salt  that  the  animals  eat  it  for  their  salt  supply. 
This  bush  is  being  introduced  into  the  United  States  in 
the  dry  sheep-raising  lands  of  the  Southwest. 

In  the  northern  portion  of  the  plains  it  is  possible  to 
get  water  by  drilling  deep  wells.  Several  wells  reach 
as  far  as  5000  feet  below  the  surface,  and  the  waters 
secured  are  used  for  irrigating  the  lands.  In  the  southern 
portion  of  the  plains,  which  is  shut  off  from  the  south- 
east rain-bringing  winds  by  the  highlands,  irrigation  is 
necessary. 

The  South  Australian  Highlands  are  low  mountains 
from  1000  to  2000  feet  high.  They  are  old  and  worn 
down,  and  contain  considerable  quantities  of  gold,  silver, 
lead,  and  copper.  One  of  the  country's  chief  seaports, 
Adelaide,  is  on  the  southern  margin  of  this  region. 


257 


AUSTRALIA 


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262 


AUSTRALIA 


Fig.  521.   These  Maori  girls  do  not  need  stoves  to  cook  their  food.    They 

live  on  North  Island,  New  Zealand,  where  there  are  geysers,  hot  springs, 

and  boiling  pools.     At  any  time  they  can  put  their  pots  and  kettles  over 

the  steaming  cracks  and  cook  all  they  wish 

New  Guinea.  A  portion  of  New  Guinea  (the  Territory 
of  Papua)  belongs  to  the  Commonwealth  of  Australia. 
Like  most  of  the  islands  between  Australia  and  Asia, 
New  Guinea  is  mountainous,  and  the  mountains  are 
young  and  rugged.  So  far  the  interior  has  not  been 
explored  on  foot,  but  recently  airplanes  have  been  used 
in  the'  examination  and  mapping  of  the  island. 

Since  New  Guinea  is  so  near  the  equator,  the  climate 
is  very  hot  and  the  rainfall  is  heavy.  The  narrow  low- 
lands near  the  coast,  and  also  the  mountain  slopes  up 
to  a  height  of  6000  feet,  are  covered  with  forests.  On 
the  slopes  above  the  forests  there  are  grasslands. 

The  island  is  rich  in  minerals,  but  as  yet  little  mining 
has  been  done.  Plantations  of  sugar  cane  and  rubber 
trees  have  been  introduced,  and  the  vanilla  bean  is 
also  raised.  Such  industries  are  under  the  direction 
of  Europeans,  but  labor  is  scarce  and  it  is  difficult  to 
get  work  done. 

The  western  half  of  New  Guinea  belongs  to  the  Dutch, 
and  the  northern  part  of  the  eastern  half  was  formerly 
a  German  possession.  It  is  now  under  the  control  of 
Australia.  The  native  people  of  the  island,  who  make 
up  most  of  the  population,  are  Papuans. 

Tasmania  is  also  part  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia. This  island  is  the  southern  continuation  of  the 
eastern  highlands.  It  is  mountainous,  and  in  the  moun- 
tains there  are  rich  deposits  of  coal,  tin,  silver,  and 
other  minerals.  Sheep-raising  is  the  chief  industry  of 
the  uplands.  In  the  fertile  valleys  fruit  is  raised,  and 
Tasmanian  apples  are  famous  for  their  flavor. 

Cities.  Sydney,  the  oldest  town  in  Australia,  is  the  capi- 
tal of  New  South  Wales  and  its  chief  seaport  (Fig.  520). 
It  has  an  excellent  harbor  and  the  supplies  of  coal  and 
iron  close  by  have  greatly  increased  its  importance. 


Melbourne  is  the  capital  of  Victoria  and  one  of  the 
principal  seaports.  This  city  has  become  an  important 
manufacturing  and  railroad  center.  The  country  about 
Melbourne  produces  the  finest  merino  wool  in  the  world. 
Melbourne  is  the  city  from  which  the  great  butter 
exports  of  Australia  are  sent  to  New  York. 

Brisbane  is  the  capital  and  chief  port  of  Queensland. 
It  is  25  miles  from  the  coast  at  the  head  of  navigation 
on  a  small  river.  This  city  is  near  certain  of  the  great 
supplies  of  coal  and  gold;  railroads  on  the  north  and 
south  connect  it  with  other  important  centers. 

Adelaide,  the  capital  of  South  Australia,  is  nearer  Europe 
than  the  other  eastern  capitals  and  has  a  large  export 
and  import  trade. 

Perth  is  the  capital  of  Western  Australia  and  the  port 
of  export  for  the  gold  of  the  state. 

Government.  The  Commonwealth  of  Australia  con- 
sists of  six  states :  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  Queens- 
land, South  Australia,  Western  Australia,  and  Tasmania. 
The  Territory  of  Papua  is  a  dependency  of  Australia. 

In  the  Commonwealth  there  is  a  Federal  Parliament 
consisting  of  a  Governor-General,  who  represents  the 
king,  a  Senate,  and  a  House  of  Representatives.  Each 
of  the  states  elects  six  senators  for  terms  of  six  years. 
The  number  of  representatives  depends,  as  in  the 
United  States,  upon  the  population  in  each  state.  They 
are  chosen  for  three  years.  Equal  suffrage  prevails  in 
Australia. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Name  the  four  chief  natural 
regions  of  Australia.  2.  What  mountains  in  North  America  do 
you  think  may  be  like  the  eastern  and  southern  highlands  ? 
3.  "Where   did   the   rich  soils  of  the  Great  Plains   come   from  ? 

4.  Why  is  most   of   Australia  warm    throughout   the   year? 

5.  What  breed  of   sheep    furnishes  the   finest  grade  of   wool? 

6.  Of  what  value  is  the  saltbush  ?    7.  Why  is  it  dangerous  to 
cross  a  great  desert?    8.  Of  what  empire  is  Australia  a  part? 


Fig.  522.   Here  is  a  group  of  native  Maori  men  in  front  of  one  of  their 

curious  carved  houses.    They  are  dressed  for  a  war  dance.   Fifty  years  ago 

the  Maoris  were  cannibals,  but  since  the  coming  of  the  English  to  New 

Zealand  they  have  become  civilized  citizens  of  the  British  Empire 


NEW  ZEALAND 


263 


NEW  ZEALAND 

New  Zealand  consists  of  North  Island,  South  Island, 
and  Stewart  Island.  Together  with  a  number  of  the 
smaller  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  they  form  a  Brit- 
ish possession  known  as  the  Dominion  of  New  Zealand. 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  English-speaking  people. 

Physical  features.  The  islands  are  mountainous,  with 
small  lowland  areas  in  a  few  places  near  the  coast.  In 
North  Island  many  of  the  mountains  are  active  or  ex- 
tinct volcanoes,  and  in  that  region  there  are  geysers 
and  hot  springs  like  those  in  Iceland  and  Yellowstone 
National  Park  (Fig.  521).  In  South  Island  are  the 
beautiful  Southern  Alps,  which  rise  to  a  height  of  over 
12,000  feet.  There  the  scenery  is  magnificent.  There 
are  glaciers,  swift  mountain  streams,  and  waterfalls. 
On  the  western  coast  are  long,  winding  fiords  as  beau- 
tiful and  remarkable  as  many  of  the  fiords  of  Norway ; 
these  fiords  were  once  filled  with  glaciers. 

Climate.  Since  the  mountains  are  so  high  and  these 
islands  are  in  the  belt  of  the  prevailing  westerly  winds,  the 
rains  fall  chiefly  on  the  western  slope.  When  the  winds 
descend  on  the  east,  they  tend  to  dry  up  the  country, 
though  not  enough  to  make  it  a  desert.  This  is  another 
case  of  a  mountain  range  with  a  wet  windward  slope 
and  a  dry  leeward  side.  At  the  weather  station  of  New 
Zealand  which  reports  the  least  rainfall  there  is  usually 
about  23  inches  in  the  year,  while  in  the  mountain  areas 
the  rainfall  amounts  to  as  much  as  200  inches  during 
some  years. 

Except  in  the  high  mountains  the  temperature  in 
New  Zealand  is  mild  and  without  great  changes  from 
summer  to  winter. 

Native  people.  Hundreds  of  years  ago  a  group  of 
people,  known  as  the  Maoris,  who  were  tall,  handsome, 


Fig.  523.   New  Zealand  is  especially  well  fitted  for  the  raising  of  cereals,  and  there  is  not  one 

variety  which  will  not  grow  in  some  part  of  the  islands.     This  is  a  harvest  scene  on  South 

Island.   New  Zealand  cannot  compete  with  Canada,  the  United  States,  Argentina,  or  Russia  in 

supplying  the  European  grain  market.   Can  you  explain  why  ? 


Fig.  524.   Auckland  is  one  of  the  leading  seaports  of  New  Zealand.   Like 

Sydney  it  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and  the  largest  ships  can  anchor  at  its 

wharves.   With  what  countries  does  New  Zealand  chiefly  trade  ?   Can  you 

find  any  points  of  likeness  between  New  Zealand  and  the  British  Isles  ? 

brown-skinned  people  (Fig.  522),  came  to  New  Zealand 
in  great  canoes.  They  probably  came  from  other  islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and,  being  pleased  with  this  land, 
they  decided  to  stay.  Many  of  the  natives  have  now  be- 
come civilized  and  are  well  educated.  They  are  allowed 
several  representatives  in  the  government. 

Pasture  lands.  New  Zealand  is  a  pasture  land.  When 
you  look  at  the  map  (p.  260),  notice  that  some  product 
from  the  sheep  is  being  exported  from  each  of  the  large 
seaports.  The  sheep  have  no  natural  enemies  on  these 
islands,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  the  flocks  watched 
day  and  night,  as  in  our  western  mountains,  where  there 
are  bears,  mountain  lions,  and  coyotes. 

The  eastern  side  of  the  islands  was  overgrown   by 
coarse,  wiry  native  grasses,  but  little  by  little  the  British 
people  who   have   settled  there  have 
plowed  up  the  land  and  sown  the  seeds 
of  better  grasses. 

Cities.  The  chief  cities  are  Auckland 
and  Wellington,  which  have  the  best 
harbors.  Auckland  is  the  largest  city 
(Fig.  524),  but  Wellington  is  the  seat 
of  government.  Both  are  up-to-date 
cities  with  all  modern  conveniences. 
Christchurch,  on  South  Island,  is  the 
third  city  in  size. 

The  outlook.  Gold,  coal,  and  some 
silver  have  been  found  in  the  moun- 
tains, but  as  yet  mining  is  not  much 
developed.  Some  day,  when  there 
are  more  people  living  in  New  Zea- 
land,   manufacturing    industries    will 


264 


PACIFIC  ISLANDS 


Fig.  525.  North  of  Australia,  in  the  tropical  seas,  are  hundreds  of  volcanic 
islands.  This  is  Gunong  Api,  which  means  "  fire  mountain."  It  is  an 
active  volcano,  rising  straight  out  of  the  sea  as  an  almost  perfect  cone. 
During  the  last  three  centuries  Api  has  erupted  many  times,  causing 
terrible  destruction 

undoubtedly  be  developed.  Most  of  the  people  live  near  the 
coast,  and  with  their  available  water-power,  and  with  good 
supplies  of  coal,  timber,  wool,  and  hides,  electrical  plants 
and  such  industries  as  shipbuilding  and  the  manufacture 
of  woolen  and  leather  goods  may  easily  be  developed. 

PACIFIC  ISLANDS 

We  have  considered  the  Aleutian,  Hawaiian,  Japa- 
nese, and  Philippine  Islands,  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  New 
Zealand,  and  many  other  islands  in  the  Pacific,  and  still 
there  are  hundreds  of  islands  in  this  ocean  that  we  have 
not  mentioned.  Most  of  them  are  the  forested  tops  of 
volcanic  peaks  (Fig.  525).  Many  are  surrounded  by  fring- 
ing or  barrier  reefs  built  by  corals  (Fig.  526),  and  some 
have  been  made  entirely  by  corals.    A  fringing  reef  is 


built  at  the  coast  line,  but  a  barrier  reef  is  far  enough 
out  to  sea  to  leave  a  lagoon  between  the  mainland  and 
the  coral  reef.  See  map  opposite  page  265.  Some  of  the 
islands  that  are  made  entirely  of  coral  are  circular  in 
form,  and  in  the  center  of  the  circle  there  is  a  lagoon  of 
shallow  water.    Such  coral  islands  are  called  atolls. 

The  volcanic  islands  have  the  richer  soils,  and  sugar 
and  tropical  fruits  are  raised  there.  The  coconut  palm 
is  abundant  on  these  islands  and  is  very  widespread,  for 
the  coconut,  when  washed  into  the  sea,  will  float  for  a 
long  time  and  may  drift  to  some  distant  island  and 
there  start  a  new  tree. 

Most  of  the  natives  of  these  islands  belong  to  the 
brown  race.  They  are  good  fishermen  and  clever  sailors. 
Of  late  years  many  Chinese  and  Japanese  have  gone  to 
the  small  islands  of  the  Pacific  to  work  on  plantations. 

Great  Britain,  France,  Japan,  and  the  United  States 
are  the  countries  chiefly  interested  in  these  islands. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Of  what  nation  is  New 
Zealand  a  part  ?  2.  What  prevailing  winds  come  to  these  islands  ? 
3.  In  what  part  of  New  Zealand  is  the  rainfall  greatest  ?  4.  In 
what  part  of  New  Zealand  is  the  rainfall  least  ?  5.  What  is  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  people  ?  6.  What  are  the  chief  exports  ? 
7.  How  far  is  New  Zealand  from  Australia  ? 

8.  What  three  countries  in  the  world  have  geysers  ?  9.  Ex- 
plain the  presence  of  glaciers  in  New  Zealand.  10.  What  resources 
in  these  islands  encourage  settlers  to  go  there  ?  11.  Why  is 
New  Zealand  a  good  country  in  which  to  raise  sheep  ?  12.  What 
industry  may  be  developed  ? 

13.  Name  the  two  largest  cities  of  New  Zealand.  14.  What  is 
the  explanation  of  many  of  the  small  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? 
15.  Why  are  coconut  palms  abundant  on  these  islands  ?  16.  Of  what 
value  are  the  island  possessions  to  the  great  nations  of  the  world  ? 


Fig.  526.  This  island  is  the  top  of  an  old  volcanic  peak.  It  is  partly 
forested,  but  here  and  there  the  bare  volcanic  rock  stands  out  in  steep  cliffs. 
The  slopes  of  the  volcano  have  been  cut  away  by  the  waves,  leaving  the 
top  resting  on  a  platform  covered  by  shallow  water.   The  steep  sides  of 


the  volcano  drop  abruptly  to  the  depths  of  the  ocean.  On  the  outer  rim  of 
the  platform  the  corals  have  built  a  fringing  reef,  which  is  broken  only 
in  one  place  (at  the  left).  This  is  the  only  passage  by  which  ships  may 
enter  the  lagoon  and  reach  the  small  village  which  is  on  the  inner  island 


COMPARATIVE  MAP  STUDIES 


265 


Piiocogrftpb  bj  Donald  Mn-Millw 


Ltturtetj  of  the  American  Hiueum  of  -N  atunl  History 


tumuoy  of  Lee  Keedick,  >ew  York 


Fig.  527.  This  is  a  picture  of  the  MacMillan  exploring  party  on  the  ice  near 
Etah,  Greenland.  Locate  Etah  on  the  map  on  the  opposite  page.  Trace  Mac- 
Millan's  route  of  exploration.  Can  you  describe  the  type  of  country  which 
he  found  in  crossing  Ellesmere  Island  ?  Why  did  he  travel  by  dog  team  ? 


Fig.  528.  This  picture  shows  Amundsen,  the  discoverer  of  the  south  pole, 
on  the  ice  in  Ross  Sea.  When  did  Amundsen  reach  the  south  pole  ?  How 
long  was  that  after  Peary  discovered  the  north  pole  ?  If  explorers  were 
planning  to  visit  Ross  Sea,  from  what  port  would  they  probably  sail? 


POLAR  REGIONS 


NORTH  POLAR  REGION 

At  the  north  pole  there  is  a  shallow  ocean,  and  the 
water  becomes  so  cold  that  in  winter  it  is  frozen  over. 
Salt  water  does  not  freeze  at  32  degrees  Fahrenheit,  but 
there  the  temperature  of  the  ocean  waters  falls  to  30  or 
even  to  29  degrees  and  then  freezes. 

During  the  summer  the  ice  is  broken  into  great  cakes 
that  float  about,  and  when  these  floating  masses  strike 
against  each  other,  the  ice  is  crushed  and  piled  up  in  ridges 
ten,  twenty,  and  even  fifty  feet  high  (Fig.  527). 

MAP  STUDIES 

1.  Through  what  countries  does  the  arctic  circle  pass? 
2.  What  ocean  is  within  that  circle  ?  3.  Name  four  of  the 
larger  islands  in  the  north  polar  region.  4.  Name  a  large  river 
that  empties  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  there  forms  a  delta. 

5.  Through  what  body  of  water  may  a  vessel  pass  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  ?  6.  This  map  represents 
summer  conditions.  How  different  should  a  winter  map 
appear?  7.  In  what  countries  bordering  the  Arctic  Ocean 
are  there  tundras  ? 

8.  About  how  far  is  it  in  miles  from  the  arctic  circle  to  the 
north  pole  ?  9.  How  far  is  it  from  the  north  shore  of  Grant 
Land  to  the  north  pole  ?  10.  When  and  by  whom  was  the 
north  pole  first  reached  ?  11.  Name  five  men  who  have  led 
exploring  expeditions  into  the  arctic  zone. 

12.  What  explorer  left  Norway,  followed  the  north  coast 
of  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  from  New  Siberia  started  north- 
ward but  failed  to  reach  the  pole  ?  13.  What  explorer  left 
Norway  and  followed  the  north  coast  of  Russia  and  Siberia  and 
then  passed  through  Bering  Strait  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? 

14.  The  northernmost  permanent  settlement  in  the  world 
is  shown.    It  is  an  eskimo  settlement.    Give  its  latitude. 


SOUTH  POLAR  REGION 

At  the  south  pole  there  is  a  continent  larger  than 
Australia  and  nearly  as  large  as  South  America.  Most 
of  this  great  land  mass  is  covered  with  ice,  as  the  north- 
ern part  of  North  America  and  the  northwestern  part  of 
Europe  were  during  the  Glacial  Period. 

The  Antarctic  ice-sheet  moves  slowly  toward  the  sea, 
and  there  large  blocks  of  ice  break  off  and  float  away. 

The  north  pole  is  at  sea  level,  but  at  the  south  pole 
the  elevation  is  10,500  feet  above  the  sea. 

MAP  STUDIES 

1.  Compare  the  scale  of  this  map  with  that  of  the  north 
polar  region.  2.  About  how  far  is  it  in  miles  from  the  antartic 
circle  to  the  south  pole?  3.  What  other  continent  comes 
nearest  to  Antarctica? 

4.  How  far  is  it  in  miles  from  Cape  Horn  to  Graham  Land  ? 
5.  How  far  is  it  from  Cape  Horn  to  the  south  pole  ?  6.  What 
ocean  surrounds  Antarctica  ?  7.  What  is  the  greatest  diameter 
of  the  ice-sheet  which  covers  this  southern  continent  ? 

8.  If  one  edge  of  that  ice-sheet  were  placed  in  New  York 
City,  how  far  west  would  that  mass  of  ice  extend  ?  9.  Who 
located  the  south  magnetic  pole  in  1912?  He  found  it  in  a 
different  place  from  where  it  was  in  1909.  Both  the  north 
and  south  magnetic  poles  change  position  from  time  to  time. 

10.  What  two  famous  explorers  reached  the  south  pole  ? 
11.  This  map  represents  summer  conditions.  How  different 
should  a  winter  map  appear  ?  12.  There  are  no  people  living 
on  the  continent  of  Antarctica. 

13.  The  southernmost  city  in  the  world  is  shown.  Give  its 
name  and  latitude.  How  much  farther  is  it  from  the  south 
pole  than  Etah  is  from  the  north  pole?  14.  Contrast  the 
conditions  at  the  north  and  south  poles. 


266 


©  Giiiu  and  Company 


•     ;     .    .  ,       • 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


We  have  studied  all  the  great  continents  of  the  world, 
and  this  has  required  some  study  of  each  of  the  oceans. 
Little  by  little  our  information  re- 
garding the  earth  has  increased. 
The  time  has  come  for  us  to  consider 
some  larger  questions.  We  may  now 
see  how  widely  geographic  conditions 
have  influenced  the  life  and  occupa- 
tions of  the  people. 

The  most  interesting  way  to  ap- 
proach the  study  of  the  earth  as  a 
whole  is  through  the  history  of  the 
ideas  which  people  have  had  regard- 
ing the  earth. 

Early  ideas  of  the  world.  The  peo- 
ples who  developed  the  remarkable 
civilizations  about  the  shores  of  the 
eastern  Mediterranean  long  before 
the  birth  of  Christ  knew  little  about  distant  lands.  Many 
thought  the  earth  was  flat,  and  that  if  one  traveled  far 
enough  he  would  find  a  great  flowing  stream  called  the 
ocean.  They  believed  the  ocean  encircled  the  earth,  and 
that  if  one  went  beyond  its  edge  he  would  fall  off.  See 
small  inset  maps  on  Plate  A  in  Appendix. 

The  celebrated  Greeks  Homer,  Herod- 
otus, and  Aristotle,  and,  later,  Ptolemy 
the  Egyptian,  became  very  much  inter- 
ested in  the  shape  and  size  of  the  earth. 
The  astronomers  of  those  early  times 
reasoned,  quite  correctly,  that  since  the 
North  Star  appears  to  rise  when  one 
travels  northward,  and  to  fall  if  one  goes 
to  the  south,  the  earth  must  have  a  curved 
surface.  A  degree  of  latitude  was  measured 
on  the  earth's  surface.  Ptolemy,  who 
believed  that  the  earth  was  spherical,  fig- 
ured out  what  he  thought  its  size  must  be. 
Most  people  were  unwilling,  however,  to 
believe  that  the  earth  was  round,  and 
hundreds  of  years  passed  before  its  true 
sbape  was  known. 

Early  geographic  explorations.  The  de- 
sire to  open  up  trade  with  people  in 
other  lands  led  to  many  exploring  expe- 
ditions. In  the  Far  East  were  the  Chinese 
and  Japanese,  whose  explorers  pushed 
westward  into  Asia  and  eastward  along 
the  islands  in  the  north  Pacific  toward 
America.     There   were   very   intelligent 


Fig.  529.  The  early  Hindus  represented  the  earth 
as  a  hemisphere  upheld  by  four  elephants  standing 
on  the  back  of  an  immense  tortoise.  The  tortoise 
was  said  to  be  floating  on  the  surface  of  a  univer- 
sal sea,  and  the  elephants  were  symbolical  of 
the  four  winds 


native  people  living  in  Mexico  and  Peru  who  gained  some 
knowledge  of  both  North  and  South  America.  Among  the 
Pacific  islands  the  more  adventurous 
tribes  found  their  way  from  one  group 
of  islands  to  another.  The  nations  of 
western  Europe  sent  out  expeditions 
which  were  remarkably  successful, 
and  the  people  from  those  nations 
have  come  to  control  most  of  the 
lands  in  the  temperate  zones,  except 
that  portion  which  is  in  eastern  Asia. 
The  journeys  of  Marco  Polo  in  Asia, 
and  of  the  Arabs  who  followed  the 
shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  aroused  a 
new  interest  in  geography ;  and  when 
the  caravan  routes  to  the  East  were 
closed  by  the  Turks  (p.  17G),  and 
European  merchants  were  deprived 
of  the  goods  brought  overland,  the  desire  for  a  new 
route  to  India  became  intense.  In  1492  Columbus  made 
his  famous  voyage,  in  the  belief  that  India  could  be 
reached  by  sailing  westward  from  Spain.  When  Colum- 
bus set  sail,  few  people  believed  that  the  earth  was 
round,  and,  indeed,  this  belief  did  not 
become  general  until  Magellan  had  made 
his  voyage  around  the  earth. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  several 
hundred  years  before  Columbus  was  born, 
Eric  the  Red,  a  daring  Norseman,  had 
sailed  westward  to  Iceland,  and  later  had 
reached  Greenland  and  points  on  the 
continent  of  North  America.  The  rest  of 
the  world,  however,  knew  nothing  of  his 
voyages  until  centuries  later,  and  the 
discoveries  of  the  Norseman  therefore 
had  little  influence  on  later  exploration. 

Home  work.  Read  an  account  of  Marco  Polo's 
journey  through  central  Asia. 


Fig.  530.  This  is  Marco  Polo's  map 
of  the  earth.  Notice  that  the  east 
(Oriens)  is  at  the  top  of  the  map  and 
the  west  (Occidens)  is  at  the  bottom. 
Notice  also  that  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa  (the  known  world  of  Marco 
Polo's  time)  are  represented  as  form- 
ing one  continent  in  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and  that  the  southern 
hemisphere  [was  supposed  to  contain 
another  world  (alter  orbis)  or  (seu) 
Antichtonia.  The  name  "Antichtonia" 
comes  from  two  Greek  words  meaning 
an  opposite  world 
267 


Later  explorations.  After  Columbus's 
voyage,  further  discoveries  followed  fast. 
The  Portuguese,  Spanish,  English,  and 
French  all  sent  out  expeditions.  The  main 
outlines  of  the  continents  soon  came  to  be 
known,  and  the  settlement  of  the  Western 
Hemisphere  progressed  rapidly.  In  the 
middle  and  latter  part  of  the  last  century 
Stanley  and  Livingstone  undertook  the 
exploration   of    the    interior   of    Africa, 


268 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


which,  being  unknown,  was  so  long  called  the  Dark 
Continent,  and  Nordenskjold  sailed  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean  along  the  north  coast  of  Europe  and 
Asia.    Later  Nansen  followed  the  Nordenskjold  route  as 


Fig.  S31.    The  heavy  lines  with  figures  near  them  connect  places  where  the  average  temperatures 

are  the  same  in  January.   Where  are  the  hottest  places  ?   Is  the  belt  where  the  temperature  is 

80°  F.  or  above  mostly  north  or  south  of  the  equator  ?  Why  ?  Why  do  the  temperature  lines  curve 

northward  west  of  Europe  and  west  of  South  America  ?  See  also  ocean  map  on  page  275 


far  as  New  Siberia  and  then  turned  northward  and  tried  to 
reach  the  north  pole,  but  failed.  More  recently  the  remark- 
able journeys  of  Peary,  Amundsen,  and  Scott  in  the  polar 
regions  have  been  made.    See  maps  opposite  page  266. 

Shape  and  size  of  the  earth.  We  now  know  that  the 
diameter  of  the  earth  is  nearly  8000  miles  and  that 
the  circumference  at  the  equator  is  about  25,000  miles. 
The  way  a  ship  disappears  below  the  horizon  at  sea 
proves  that  the  earth  has  a  curved  surface,  and  the 
shadow  of  the  earth  on  the  moon  is 
always  part  of  a  circle  and  proves  that 
the  earth  must  be  spherical. 

The  earth  is  not  a  perfect  sphere, 
for  in  the  polar  regions  the  surface 
is  somewhat  flattened.  The  distance 
through  the  earth  from  pole  to  pole 
is  27  miles  less  than  it  is  through  the 
earth  at  the  equator. 

Directions.  Early  explorers  knew  that 
they  could  determine  the  directions  at 
night,  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  by 
an  observation  of  the  North  Star.  Dur- 
ing the  day  they  could  tell  what  direc- 
tion was  north  by  the  shadow  of  the 
sun  at  noon.  Later  they  learned  to  use 
the  compass.  Sea  captains  and  all  ex- 
plorers and  surveyors  must  understand 
the  reading  of  a  compass  perfectly. 


Early  explanation  of  days  and  nights.  When  it  was 
believed  that  the  earth  was  flat,  some  explanation  had 
to  be  given  for  the  sun's  rising  and  setting  each  day. 
Among  the  ancient  Roman  myths  is  the  story  of  Phoebus 
Apollo,  who  each  morning  brought  the 
golden  chariot  of  the  sun  around  to 
the  east,  and  carefully  guided  his  fiery 
steeds  across  the  skies  during  the  day. 
There  are  many  other  myths  or  legends 
to  explain  the  coming  of  the  day. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Have  you 

ever  noticed  anything  that  made  you  believe 
that  the  earth's  surface  is  curved  ?  2.  What 
objection  is  there  to  believing  that  it  is 
flat  ?  3.  Why  did  men  start  off  on  exploring 
expeditions  ? 

4.  Who  were  some  of  the  early  explorers  ? 
Where  did  they  go  ?  5.  What  nations  were 
especially  active  in  exploring  the  distant 
parts  of  the  world  ?  6.  About  how  long  is 
the  diameter  of  the  earth  ?  7.  What  is  the 
circumference  at  the  equator? 

8.  What  means  have  we  in  this  country 
for  determining  the  direction  north  on  a 
clear  night?  What  means  may  be  used 
during  the  day  ?  9.  What  was  the  earliest 
explanation  of  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun  each  day  ? 
10.  What  is  the  highest  temperature  shown  on  the  maps, 
Figs.  531  and  532  ?  What  is  that  temperature  in  Fahrenheit  and 
in  centigrade  degrees  ?  The  Fahrenheit  figures  will  be  found  on 
the  temperature  lines  at  the  western  side  of  the  maps  ;  the  centi- 
grade figures  will  be  found  at  the  eastern  side  of  the  maps. 

11.  What  is  the  lowest  temperature  shown  on  these  maps? 
What  is  it  in  Fahrenheit  and  in  centigrade  degrees  ?  12.  If  the 
degree  marks  were  erased  from  your  thermometer,  how  could  you 
fix  and  mark  accurately  the  freezing  and  boiling  points  again  ? 


Fig.  532.   The  temperature  lines  on  this  map  and  on  the  map  in  Fig.  531  are  called  isotherms.   This 

map  gives  the  average  July  temperatures.   Where  are  the  hottest  places  ?   Is  the  belt  where  the 

temperature  is  80°  F.  or  over  mostly  north  or  south  of  the  equator  ?  Why  has  this  belt  shifted  from 

where  it  was  in  January  ?  Why  have  the  centers  of  greatest  heat  shifted  ? 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


269 


-10 
17.78° 


50° 


Rotation  of  the  earth.  We  now  know  that  the  earth  is 
round  and  is  turning  on  its  axis,  and  so  we  have  a  very 
different  explanation  of  days  and  nights.  Hundreds  of 
years  passed  before  anyone  proved  that  the  earth  turned 
on  its  axis.  The  fact  that  the  earth  moves  at  all  has 
been  one  of  the  hardest  things  for  men  to  believe.  Noth- 
ing seems  so  natural  as  to  think  that  the  earth  stands 
still  and  that  other  heavenly  bodies  do  the  moving. 

Galileo,  who  was  a  wonderful  scientist,  dropped  weights 
from  near  the  top  of  the  leaning  tower  of  Pisa  in  Italy. 
He  knew  that  if  the  earth  stood  still,  the  object  dropped 
would  follow  the  plumb  line  directly  toward  the  center 
of  the  earth.  He  found,  however,  after 
many  experiments,  that  the  objects  he 
dropped  struck  the  earth  east  of  the  point 
where  the  plumb  line  met  the  earth. 

This  proved  not  only  that  the  earth  was 
rotating,  but  that  it  rotated  from  west  to 
east,  for  it  could  not  have  happened  unless 
the  top  of  the  building  had  moved  forward, 
or  eastward,  faster  than  its  base,  just  as 
the  rim  end  of  a  spoke  in  a  moving  wheel 
moves  faster  than  the  hub  end.  The  weight, 
while  falling,  had  kept  its  forward  motion 
as  a  person  does  in  stepping  from  a  mov- 
ing car 

Revolution  and  inclined  axis.  Much  later 
came  the  discoveiy  that  while  the  earth 
is  rotating  on  its  axis  every  twenty-four 
hours,  it  is  going  on  a  long  journey  around 
the  sun  (Fig.  538).  This  takes  a  year  to 
accomplish.  It  was  also  discovered  that 
the  axis  of  the  earth,  the  imaginary  line 
on  which  it  rotates,  is  not  vertical  but  is 
tipped  23|  degrees  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  (Fig.  539).  The 
orbit  of  the  earth  is  its  path  around  the  sun  (Fig.  538). 
The  amount  of  inclination  of  the  axis  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  on  one  day  of  the  year,  June  21,  the  rays 
of  the  sun  go  231  degrees  beyond  the  north  pole  and 
fall  231  degrees  short  of  the  south  pole.  The  positions 
of  the  arctic  and  antarctic  circles  are  thus  fixed.  At  that 
time  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  strike  231  degrees  north 
of  the  equator  (Fig.  538).  This  fixes  the  position  of  the 
tropic  of  Cancer.  On  December  21,  when  the  north  pole 
is  turned  away  from  the  sun,  the  vertical  rays  strike 
23^  degrees  south  of  the  equator.  This  fixes  the  posi- 
tion of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  At  that  time  the  rays 
of  the  sun  go  231  degrees  beyond  the  south  pole  and 
fall  231  degrees  short  of  reaching  the  north  pole. 

Home  work.  Make  a  series  of  diagrams  showing  where  the  rays 
of  the  sun  strike  the  earth  vertically  on  June  21,  December  21, 
September  21,  and  March  21. 


Fig.  534.  The  circles  drawn  on  a  globe  parallel 
to  the  equator  are  called  parallels.  All  the 
places  on  any  one  parallel  are  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  equator,  or  in  the  same  latitude 


Fig.  533.  What 
are  the  freez- 
ing and  boiling 
points  on  the 
centigrade  and 
Fahrenheit  ther- 
mometers ? 


Latitude  and  longitude.  Lines  are  drawn  parallel  to 
the  equator  on  globes  and  on  maps  representing  the 
earth,  to  show  the 

7  WORTH  p0Le 

degrees  of  latitude, 
or  distance  north  and 
south  of  the  equator 
(Fig.  53-1).  Distance 
east  or  west  on  the 
earth  is  called  longi- 
tude, and  a  number 
of  half  circles  drawn 
from  pole  to  pole  and 
called  meridians  are 
used  in  measuring 
it  (Fig.  535). 

English-speaking 
people  usually  begin 
to  count  degrees  of 
longitude  from  the 
meridian  that  passes 
through  Greenwich,  England.  Greenwich  is  just  out- 
side of  London  and  is  the  site  of  a  famous  observatory 
(Fig.  330).  If  we  call  the  meridian  that  passes  through 
Greenwich  the  prime  meridian,  and  number  it  0,  we 
can  count  180  degrees  east  or  west  of  Greenwich.  See 
Appendix,  Plate  A. 

Longitude  and  time.  Each  place  on  the  earth  in  mak- 
ing one  rotation  passes  through  3G0  degrees  of  longitude. 
Since  we  make  one  rotation  in  twenty-four  hours,  we 
pass  through  15  degrees  of  longitude  in  one  hour. 

When  the  meridian  on  which  we  live  passes  under  the 
sun,  it  is  noon  for  us,  and  for  people  living  15  degrees 
west  of  us  it  is  11  a.m.  One  hour  later  their  meridian 
will  pass  under  the  sun,  and  it  will  then  be  noon  for  them 
and  1  p.m.  for  us.  Each  15  degrees  of  longitude  between 
places  on  the  earth  means  one  hour's  difference  in  time. 

The  people  east  of 
us  see  the  sun  before 
we  do  ;  therefore  their 
time  is  later  than  ours. 
The  time  in  the  east- 
era  part  of  the  United 
States  is  always  sev- 
eral hours  later  than 
that  in  the  western 
part.  When  the  armis- 
tice which  stopped  the 
fighting  in  the  great 

World  War  went  into  Fig.  535.  All  places  on  any  of  the  north- 
effect  at  11  A. M  bv  and-south  lines  have  midday  at  the  same 
•p     .     ,.  .,  ,         time.     These    lines    are    therefore    called 

fans  time,  it  was  only     fnerfdfafU)  wnich  means  midday  Unes.  Lati. 

6  A.M.  in  Washington.      tude  and  longitude  are  measured  in  degrees 


270 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


i*uutogiapb  tijr  l>i>Q*id  SiacJiuiau 


Courtesy  of  tLe  American  Museum  ot  >aiur»I  llistorj 


Fig.  536.  This  is  an  unusual  photograph  of  the  midnight  sun,  taken  near 
Etah,  Greenland,  in  the  month  of  July.  The  photographer  exposed  the 
plate  every  twenty  minutes  from  11P.M.  to  1.20  a.m.,  thus  showing  the 
path  of  the  sun  in  the  arctic  region  during  the  season  when  it  is  above 
the  horizon  night  and  day 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Do  you  believe  that  the  earth 
turns  on  its  axis  ?  Why  ?  How  long  does  it  take  to  make  one  ro- 
tation ?  2.  Why,  at  a  given  moment,  is  it  later  at  Washington,  D.  C, 
than  at  San  Francisco  ? 

3.  About  how  much  difference  in  time  is  there  between  Paris 
and  the  city  of  Washington  ?  4.  How  do  we  know  that  the  earth 
rotates  from  west  to  east  on  its  axis  ?  5.  How  long  does  it  take 
the  earth  to  revolve  about  the  sun  ? 

Zones  of  latitude.  Between  the  tropic  of  Cancer  and 
the  tropic  of  Capricorn  is  the  torrid  zone,  extending 
23*-  degrees  north  and  south  of  the  equator.  North  and 
south  of  that  zone  are  the  temperate  zones,  and  around 
the  poles  are  the  north  and  south  frigid  zones. 

Seasons  and  length  of  day  and  night.  If  the  axis  of 
the  earth  were  upright,  there  would  always  be  twelve 
hours  of  day  and  twelve  hours  of  night  everywhere  on 
the  earth  except  at  the  poles,  where  the  sun  would 
always  appear  at  the  horizon.  Since  the  axis  of  the 
earth  is  inclined  and  the  north  pole  is  turned  slightly 
toward  the  sun  during  a  part  of  the  year  and  away 
from  it  during  another  part  (Fig.  538),  the  day  and 
night  are  not  of  equal  length  in  any  place  except  at 
the  equator.  During  the  northern  summer,  when  the 
sun's  rays  strike  vertically  north  of  the  equator,  the 
days  are  longer  than  the  nights  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere. At  that  time  the  southern  hemisphere  is  having 
winter,  with  short  days  and  long  nights.  When  winter 
comes  to  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  nights  are  longer 
than  the  days,  while  in  the  southern  hemisphere  the 
people  are  having  summer,  with  long  days  and  short 
nights  (Fig.  538). 


On  the  arctic  circle  there  is  a  short  period  of  each 
summer  when  the  sun  stays  above  the  horizon  for  twenty- 
four  hours.  Those  who  live  still  nearer  the  north  pole 
may  see  the  sun  above  the  horizon  day  and  night  for 
weeks  or  even  months,  and  at  the  pole  itself  the  sun 
stays  above  the  horizon  for  six  months.  The  same  gen- 
eral facts  hold  for  the  region  about  the  south  pole  dur- 
ing the  southern  summer.  When  winter  comes  witbin 
the  arctic  or  antarctic  circle,  the  days  become  shorter  and 
shorter,  and  for  a  time  the  sun  does  not  rise  above  the 
horizon.  When  the  nights  are  long  in  one  polar  region, 
they  are  short  in  the  other.  The  winter  seasons  in  the 
frigid  zones  are  so  long  and  so  severe  that  living  condi- 
tions become  very  difficult. 

Throughout  the  torrid  zone  the  day  and  night  do  not 
differ  much  in  length,  and  at  the  equator  the  day  and 
night  are  always  equal  in  length.  This  is  because  just 
half  of  the  equator  is  in  darkness  all  the  time.  The  tem- 
perature in  the  torrid  zone  does  not  change  much  from 
season  to  season,  and  the  hot,  moist  climate  of  that 
zone  is  weakening  to  all  people. 

In  the  temperate  zones  a  few  hours  mark  the  differ- 
ence between  the  length  of  the  winter  day  and  the  length 
of  the  summer  day.  As  the  days  in  the  north  temperate 
zone  become  shorter  those  of  the  south  temperate  zone 
become  longer.  The  changes  in  seasonal  temperature 
are  not  so  marked  as  they  are  in  the  Far  North  or  in  the 
Far  South,  but  there  is  sufficient  change  to  give  great 
variety  to  the  climate.  That  variety  has  been  very  bene- 
ficial in  the  development  of  civilized  people ;  it  has  led 
them  to  build  good  homes  and  to  store  up  food,  clothing, 
and  fuel  for  the  winter.  They  have  found  it  necessary 
to  look  ahead  and  provide  for  the  cold  season. 

Angle  of  the  sun's  rays.  The  higher  the  sun  is  above 
the  horizon,  the  more  nearly  vertical  are  the  rays  of  heat 
and  light.  Oblique  rays  of  heat  must  pass  through  more 
atmosphere,  which  takes  out  some  heat,  and  they  also 
spread  over  more  surface  than  vertical  rays  (Fig.  537). 
Since  a  bundle  of 
vertical  rays  warms 
a  smaller  area  of 
the  earth  than  an 
equal  bundle  of  ob- 
lique rays,  it  warms 
that  area  more. 
This  is  one  reason 
why  the  summer, 
when  the  sun's  rays 

are  nearly  vertical      Fig.  537.   Two  equal  bundles  of  the  sun's  rays 

Overhead    is  much      are  here  snown  striking  different  parts  of  the 

,  ,         earth's  surface.    As  many  rays  strike  over  the 

warmer   man   tne    line  B  as  over  the  line  A   Wnere  wiu  tne  tem- 

winter  season.  perature  be  the  higher,  over  A  or  over  B  ?  Why? 


272 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Between  what  circles  is  the 
torrid  zone  ?  2.  What  circles  limit  the  temperate  zones  ?  3.  Where 
are  the  frigid  zones  ?  4.  Why  are  the  days  longer  in  summer 
than  in  winter  at  points  north  or  south  of  the  equator  ?  5.  Where 
are  the  day  and  night  always  equal  in  length  ? 

6.  Describe  the  different  seasons  in  the  north  polar  region. 
7.  Why  is  it  warm  at  sea  level  in  the  tropics  throughout  the 
year  ?  8.  What  difference  have  you  observed  in  the  temperature 
when  the  sun  is  high  above  the  horizon  and  when  it  is  low? 
9.  During  what  month  at  your  home  is  the  sun  highest  at  noon  ? 
During  what  month  is  it  lowest  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Make  a  diagram  with  the  axis  of  the  earth 
upright.  2.  How  would  that  position  affect  the  length  of  day  and 
night  ?  3.  Where  would  the  rays  of  the  sun  strike  the  earth  verti- 
cally all  the  time  ?  How  would  such  a 
position  of  the  axis  affect  the  seasons  ? 

Winds  of  the  world.  Often,  in 
our  study  of  the  different  coun- 
tries of  the  world,  we  have  re- 
ferred to  the  prevailing  westerly 
winds  in  both  northern  and  south- 
ern hemispheres,  and  we  have 
referred  to  the  northeast  and 
southeast  trades.  These  great 
wind  belts  extend  around  the 
earth  (Fig.  539).  Where  the  air  is 
greatly  heated,  as  in  the  equato- 
rial region  (Fig.  539),  it  expands 
and  rises.  In  that  region  there 
are  few  winds,  and  it  is  therefore 
known  as  the  belt  of  equatorial 
calms.  When  air  rises  slowly,  we 
are  not  conscious  of  any  motion. 
The  air  on  either  side  of  the 
equator  in  the  trade-wind  belts 
moves  in  toward  the  equatorial  calm  belt  and  then  begins 
to  rise,  helping  to  force  the  air  in  the  calm  belt  upward. 

The  other  two  calm  belts,  one  about  30  degrees  north 
of  the  equator  and  the  other  about  30  degrees  south  of 
the  equator,  where  the  air  descends  (Fig.  539),  are  known 
as  the  horse  latitudes.  From  these  belts  of  calms  the 
trade  winds  start  toward  the  equator,  and  the  westerlies 
start  toward  the  poles. 

Monsoons.  In  connection  with  the  study  of  Asia, 
Australia,  and  some  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  special 
mention  was  made  of  monsoon  winds,  and  on  page  234 
they  were  explained. 

Land  and  sea  breezes.  About  the  shores  of  all  the  con- 
tinents and  islands  there  are  land  and  sea  breezes.  Dur- 
ing the  day,  when  the  land  becomes  warm,  the  colder 
air  over  the  water  flows  inland,  making  what  is  known 
as  a  sea  breeze.  At  night,  when  the  air  over  the  land 
cools  more  rapidly  than  the  air  over  the  sea,  the  wind 
is  reversed.    It  moves  from  the  land  to  the  sea  and  is 


Fig.  539.  Which  way  does  the  air  move  in  the  belt  of  equa- 
torial calms  ?  in  the  calms  of  the  horse  latitudes  ?  Does 
the  upper  air  over  the  trade  winds  move  toward  the  poles  or 
the  equator  ?  Those  upper  air  currents  are  called  antitrades 


known  as  a  land  breeze.  In  each  case  the  colder  and 
thus  heavier  air  moves  in  under  the  warmer  and 
fighter  air  and  forces  the  warmer  air  to  rise. 

Uses  of  the  winds.  The  winds  are  of  very  great  im- 
portance to  man.  They  are  carriers  of  rain ;  they  help 
to  equalize  the  temperature  of  places  near  the  shore ; 
they  hasten  evaporation  and  dry  the  land  after  a  rain. 
Wind  power  is  now  utilized  to  some  extent,  and  it  may 
be  used  more  fully  wfien  new  devices  are  invented  for 
storing  up  the  energy  as  electricity.  The  winds  have 
a  most  beneficial  effect  in  purifying  the  air,  and  have 
always  been  of  the  greatest  significance  in  navigation. 

Problems    and    review    questions. 

1.  Where  are  the  calm  belts  ?  What 
are  they  called  ?  2.  What  winds  blow 
from  the  horse  latitudes  toward  the 
equator  ?  3.  In  what  parts  of  the 
world  do  the  prevailing  winds  come 
from  the  west  ?  See  Fig.  539.  4.  Ex- 
plain land  and  sea  breezes.  5.  How 
do  the  winds  help  in  commerce  ?  6.  In 
what  other  ways  are  the  winds  helpful 
to  the  activities  of  man  ? 

Ocean  currents.  The  prevailing 
winds  of  the  world  set  the  sur- 
face waters  of  the  seas  in  motion. 
The  trade  winds  on  either  side 
of  the  equator  blow  the  waters 
on  the  surface  toward  the  equa- 
tor and  in  a  westward  direction. 
See  map  on  page  275. 

In  the  Atlantic  Ocean  the 
equatorial  stream  flowing  west- 
ward reaches  Cape  St.  Roque 
and  divides.  The  northern  part  flows  through  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  and  some  of  it  follows  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  surface  water  that  leaves  the  Gulf  through 
the  Florida  Strait  and  starts  northeastward  is  called  the 
Gulf  Stream.  As  it  crosses  the  north  Atlantic  Ocean, 
helped  along  by  the  prevailing  westerly  winds,  it  spreads 
out,  moves  more  slowly,  and  is  called  the  Gulf  Stream 
Drift.  When  this  current  approaches  Europe,  its  waters 
divide ;  some  flow  to  the  northeast  by  Scandinavia,  and 
some  turn  southward  and  rejoin  the  equatorial  current. 
The  part  of  the  Equatorial  Current  that  flows  south 
from  Cape  St.  Roque  is  known  as  the  Brazil  Current. 
When  it  reaches  the  belt  of  the  westerlies  in  the  south- 
ern hemisphere,  it  turns  eastward,  but  a  part  of  the  water 
circles  northward  along  the  west  coast  of  Africa  as  the 
Benguela  Current  and  joins  the  equatorial  current  again. 
In  both  the  north  and  south  Atlantic,  therefore,  there  are 
great  circling  masses  of  water  called  eddies.  In  one  the 
motion  is  clockwise  and  in  the  other  counterclockwise. 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


273 


"Waters  that  flow  from  the  equator  toward  the  poles 
are  warm  currents,  because  they  carry  warm  waters 
into  regions  where  the  water  is  cold.  The  waters  that 
flow  from  the  polar  regions  toward  the  equator  are 
cold  currents.  When  the  Gulf  Stream  flows  northward 
into  the  arctic  regions,  it  must  return  by  such  ways  as  it 
can  find.  Some  comes  back  as  the  Greenland  Current,  some 
as  the  Labrador  Current,  and  some  through  Bering  Strait. 

In  the  Pacific  Ocean  there  is  an  Equatorial  Current 
which  flows  westward  and  divides  when  it  reaches  the 
islands  between  Asia  and  Australia.  The  part  which 
turns  north  we  call  the  Japan  Current,  or  the  Kuro 
Siwo.  It  crosses  the  Pacific  to  the  northeast  with  the 
prevailing  westerlies,  and 
divides  when  it  reaches 
North  America.  The  south- 
ern part  follows  the  coast 
of  California  and  is  known 
as  the  California  Current. 
The  northern  part  is  known 
as  the  Alaska  Current. 

The  portion  of  the  Pacific 
Equatorial  Current  which 
turns  southward  and  flows 
between  New  Zealand  and 
Australia  is  known  ?s  the 
East  Australian  Current. 
When  it  reaches  the  belt 
of  the  westerlies,  it  turns 
eastward,  and  these  winds 
help  it  along.  As  this 
current  approaches  South 
America  part  of  it  turns  northward  and  is  known  as 
the  Peru  Current,  which  in  time  joins  the  Equatorial 
Current  and  thus  completes  the  South  Pacific  eddy. 

During  the  days  of  sailing  vessels  the  ocean  currents 
were  of  very  great  importance  in  commerce.  The  cap- 
tains chose  to  travel  with  the  currents,  and  thus  had  the 
advantage  of  moving  with  the  winds  and  the  water. 

The  traders  in  the  north  Atlantic  during  the  early 
colonial  days  would  start  out  from  New  England  with 
their  cargoes  and  sail  for  England.    From  there  they 


)  Uenrj  U.  Pe&boii; 

Fig.  540.    This  picture  was  taken  from  the  top  of  Mt.  Washington  and 

shows  the  appearance  of  the  cloud-banks  which  often  surround  this  and 

other  mountain  peaks.  Can  you  explain  why  clouds  gather  about  the  slopes 

of  mountains  in  this  way  ? 


The  greatest  importance  of  the  currents  is  their  effect 
upon  climate.  We  have  frequently  noted  that  the  winds 
from  over  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  make  the 
climate  of  western  Europe  much  milder  than  that  in 
the  same  latitude  on  the  western  shores  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  The  Alaska  Current,  which  comes  from  the 
Japan  stream,  always  carries  warmer  waters  to  the  coast, 
and  the  air  from  over  those  waters  blows  inland  and  thus 
keeps  the  climate  warmer  than  it  would  otherwise  be. 

Owing  to  the  cold  current  on  the  west  coast  of  South 
America  the  air  near  the  coast  of  Peru  is  cool,  although 
Peru  is  in  the  equatorial  region.  The  Labrador  current 
chills  the  water  and  air  along  the  northeast  coast  of 

North  America.  Sea  bath- 
ing northeast  from  New 
Hampshire  is  not  enjoyed 
by  many,  because  the  water 
is  cold  ;  but  the  cold  waters 
abound  in  fish. 

Rainfall  of  the  world. 
Even  Aristotle  and  Plato, 
the  great  philosophers  of 
ancient  Greece,  believed 
that  the  waters  of  the  sea 
must  be  connected  in  some 
way  with  the  waters  of  the 
land.  They  noticed  that  the 
rivers  were  constantly  flow- 
ing toward  the  sea,  and  they 
thought  there  must  be  some 
return  from  the  sea  to  the 
rivers.  They  believed  that 
the  waters  of  the  sea  came  back  through  the  ground, 
rising  in  great  cracks,  or  fissures,  through  the  earth. 
In  that  process  the  sea  waters  were  supposed  to  have 
lost  their  salt. 

Centuries  passed  before  the  true  process  was  understood. 
As  we  now  know,  the  waters  from  the  seas  are  evapo- 
rated. They  pass  up  into  the  air  as  an  invisible  vapor. 
This  vapor  cools  and  condenses.  If  the  temperature 
where  the  vapor  condenses  is  below  32°  F.,  tiny  particles 
of  ice  form,  which  may  fall  as  snow.    If  the  vapor  con- 


would  coast  southward  by  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and,  denses  at  a  temperature  above  32°,  it  forms  tiny  globules 


the  Canary  Islands,  stopping  perhaps  in  Africa,  and  on 
their  return  westward  they  would  head  for  the  islands 
of  the  West  Indies.  There  they  might  exchange  some 
of  their  cargoes  and  secure  additional  articles  for  trade 
with  the  Atlantic  coast  colonies  when  they  returned. 

The  great  ocean  currents  will  always  remain  of  some 
commercial  importance,  although  they  do  not  affect  the 
movements  of  the  great  steamships  as  much  as  they  do 
the  movements  of  sailing  vessels. 


of  water,  and  when  they  fall  we  have  rain.  Thus  the 
cycle  between  the  waters  of -the  sea  and  the  waters  of 
the  land  is  completed  by  the  moisture  passing  through 
the  air  instead  of  through  the  ground. 

Over  and  over  again  we  have  studied  rainfall  condi- 
tions. They  have  a  controlling  influence  upon  life  in  all 
parts  of  the  world.  When  we  put  all  the  facts  together 
and  look  at  the  rainfall  chart  of  the  world,  certain  facts 
stand  out  very  sharply.    First,  the  heaviest  rainfall  is 


274 


MAP  STUDIES 


near  the  equator.  This  is  where  it  is  always  hot,  where 
the  air  is  rising  and  taking  much  moisture  with  it. 
In  the  hot  belt,  where  there  is  abundance  of  rainfall,  the 
great  tropical  forests  are  found.  Vegetable  growth  is  so 
dense  that  we  think  of  those  regions  as  countries  of  plants 
rather  than  as  countries  for  men  to  live  in.  The  largest 
tropical  forests  are  in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  and  the 
valley  of  the  Congo,  but  the  East  Indies  also  have  exten- 
sive tropical  forests.  See  maps  opposite  pages  156  and  230. 

To  the  north  and  south  of  the  belt  of  heavy  equatorial 
rains  are  belts  of  lesser  rainfall,  where  there  are  grass- 
lands. In  South  America,  north  of  the  Amazon  jungle, 
are  the  grasslands  of  the  Orinoco,  and  south  of  it  are  the 
grasslands  of  the  Parana.  In  Africa,  north  of  the  tropi- 
cal forest  of  the  Congo,  are  the  grasslands  of  the  Sudan, 
and  south  of  the  Congo  basin  are  the  grasslands  of  the 
southern  plateaus.  In  Australia  the  great  central  plain 
is  a  grassland,  and  in  Asia  the  lowlands  of  India  and 
Siam  are  in  part  grass-covered. 

The  next  most  striking  general  fact  is  that  the  wind- 
ward side  of  all  high  mountains  has  heavy  rainfall. 
Prove  this  by  an  example  from  North  America;  from 
South  America ;  from  Europe  ;  from  Asia.  Now  look  at 
the  distribution  of  the  great  deserts  of  the  world.  Many 
of  them  are  on  the  leeward  side  of  a  mountain  range. 
The  great  desert  belt  which  stretches  through  northern 
Africa,  across  Arabia  and  Persia,  and  into  central  Asia 
is  a  land  which  moisture-bearing  winds  do  not  reach. 

In  the  far  northern  country  within  the  arctic  circle 
the  amount  of  rainfall  is  light.  That  is  because  the  air, 
being  chilled  in  its  northward  journey,  gives  up  its  mois- 
ture before  it  gets  so  far  north.  The  temperature  is  so 
low,  and  there  is  so  little  moisture,  that  the  growth  of 
vegetation  is  stunted.  Mosses,  grasses,  shrubs,  and  trees 
a  few  inches  high  make  up  the  vegetation  of  the  tundra 
country.    See  map  opposite  page  266. 

The  temperate  zones  are  the  most  favored.  They  have 
variety  in  temperature  from  summer  to  winter,  variety 
in  vegetation  from  place  to  place,  and  variety  in  rain- 
fall, so  that  almost  all  kinds  of  crops  can  be  raised  and 
nearly  all  occupations  can  be  followed.  There  are  deserts 
in  the  temperate  zones,  but  most  of  the  land  in  these 
zones  is  well  watered. 

The  civilized  nations  of  the  world  have  come  to  occupy 
the  lands  of  the  temperate  zones.  They  seem  to  have 
chosen  those  lands,  but  it  is  also  true  that  the  climatic 
conditions  in  the  temperate  zones  favor  the  advancement 
of  civilization. 

The  geography  of  a  country,  including  climate,  phys- 
ical features,  and  natural  resources,  determines  the 
activities  of  the  people,  and  in  part  the  degree  of 
civilization   which   they   may   attain. 


MAP  STUDIES 

Rainfall  of  the  world.  On  the  map  on  the  opposite  page, 
showing  the  distribution  of  rainfall,  the  continents  are  repre- 
sented in  their  correct  relative  sizes.  1.  Which  is  the  largest  ? 
Which  is  the  second  largest  ?  Which  is  the  smallest  ?  See 
Appendix,  page  viii. 

2.  Where  are  the  most  extensive  desert  lands  of  the  world  ? 
Give  the  names  of  these  deserts.  3.  Are  the  tundras  of  the 
world,  as  shown  on  the  various  relief  maps  in  this  book,  in 
wet  or  in  dry  regions  ?  4.  Is  the  rainfall  heavier  near  or  far 
from  the  equator? 

5.  Where  there  is  very  heavy  rainfall  at  a  distance  from  the 
equator,  what  special  explanation  is  there  ?  6.  In  general,  is 
the  rainfall  heavier  near  the  margins  of  the  continent  or  in 
the  interior?  Give  examples.  7.  In  general,  is  the  rainfall 
heavier  in  mountainous  regions  than  in  lowland  regions  ? 
Give  examples. 

8.  Which  continents  have  the  larger  areas  of  heavy  rainfall  ? 

9.  Are  those  places  of  very  heavy  rainfall  densely  populated  ? 

10.  What  is  the  general  average  amount  of  rainfall  in  the  re- 
gions of  the  world  that  are  most  densely  populated  ?  11.  Select 
three  or  four  places  where  grazing  is  an  important  occupation. 
What  is  the  usual  amount  of  rainfall  there  ? 

Oceans.  The  map  on  the  opposite  page,  showing  the  ocean 
currents,  is  drawn  so  that  the  oceans  appear  in  the  correct 
relative  sizes.  1.  Which  ocean  is  clearly  the  largest  ?  2.  Esti- 
mate how  many  times  larger  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  than  the 
Atlantic.    See  Appendix,  page  v. 

3.  Which  way  do  most  of  the  surface  waters  move  in  the 
equatorial  regions  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  ?  4.  What 
winds  cause  these  currents  ?  5.  Compare  the  surface  circulation 
in  the  north  Atlantic  Ocean  with  that  in  the  south  Atlantic. 

6.  Which  motion  is  clockwise?  Which  one  is  counterclock- 
wise ?  7.  Is  the  general  circulation  in  the  north  and  south  Pacific 
like  that  in  the  north  and  south  Atlantic  ?  8.  The  monsoon 
winds  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean  change  the 
direction  of  the  surface  currents  from  season  to  season. 

9.  Compare  the  temperature  of  the  surface  waters  on  the 
east  and  west  sides  of  South  America  in  the  latitude  of  Buenos 
Aires.  Why  is  it  warmer  on  one  side  than  on  the  other  in  the 
same  latitude  ? 

10.  Compare  the  surface  temperatures  of  the  water  near 
Newfoundland  and  in  the  same  latitude  on  the  west  coast  of 
Europe.  Why  is  there  a  difference  ?  11.  In  what  part  of  the 
north  Atlantic  west  of  Europe  is  the  temperature  about  the 
same  as  it  is  at  the  surface  near  Newfoundland  ? 

12.  What  is  the  name  of  the  cold  current  that  comes  south- 
ward along  the  northeastern  coast  of  North  America  and 
reaches  to  the  New  England  states  ?  13.  What  current  affects 
the  climate  of  Alaska  and  British  Columbia  ?  14.  Where  are 
the  surface  temperatures  of  the  sea  the  greatest  ? 

15.  How  warm  is  it  in  those  places?  16.  How  does  that 
temperature  compare  with  the  temperature  of  the  water  which 
you  would  use  for  a  warm  bath  ?  17.  What  is  the  temperature 
of  the  water  near  Cape  Horn  ?  18.  What  is  the  temperature 
of  the  water  near  the  southern  tip  of  Africa?  19.  How  can 
the  difference  in  these  temperatures  be  explained  ? 


ARCTIC  CIRCLE 


Liuocla'a  Incerrupted  Sinusoidal  Projei 


]}  Ginn  and  Company 


Average  annual  rainfall  of  the  world 


Uoode'a  Interrupted  Homalographic  Projection 


li  Jin  aad  Con  pan  y 


Ocean  currents  and  the  temperature  of  the  surface  waters 


276 


THE  EARTH  IN  THE  UNIVERSE 


THE  EARTH  IN  THE  UNIVERSE 

We  have  learned  that  the  earth  is  a  spherical  body 
floating  in  space.  It  is  not  a  perfect  sphere,  for  it  is 
flattened  at  the  poles,  and  the  diameters  that  pass 
through  the  earth  at  the  equator  are  not  all  equal. 
We  know  that  it  rotates  on  an  inclined  axis  each  day 
and  revolves  about  the  sun  each  year. 

The  moon  travels  with  the  earth  in  its  annual  journey 
about  the  sun,  and  once  each  month  the  moon  goes 
around  the  earth.  There  can  be  no  life  on  the  moon, 
for  it  is  without  an  atmosphere  and  without  water 
(Fig.  541).  Its  light  is  all  reflected  from  the  sun's  rays, 
and  the  temperature  at  the  surface  is 
very  low. 

Eclipses.  When  the  moon  is  between 
the  earth  and  the  sun,  and  the  shadow 
of  the  moon  strikes  the  earth  in  the  part 
where  we  live,  we  have  an  eclipse  of  the 
sun ;  that  is,  we  cannot  see  the  sun,  be- 
cause the  moon  is  in  the  way.  When  the 
earth  is  between  the  sun  and  the  moon, 
and  the  shadow  of  the  earth  falls  on  the 
moon,  there  is  an  eclipse  of  the  moon. 

The  planets.  There  are  eigbt  planets, 
and  they  revolve  about  the  sun.  Named 
in  order  from  the  sun,  they  are  Mercury, 
Venus,  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
Uranus,  and  Neptune.  To  those  living 
upon  the  earth  the  seven  other  planets 
appear  as  stars.  Because  of  their  move- 
ments about  the  sun  they  do  not  always 
appear  in  the  same  part  of  the  heavens. 
They  are  wanderers.  Mercury  is  small  and  difficult  to  other  wonderful  and  inspiring  phenomena  of  nature, 
see,  for  it  rises  and  sets  near  the  time  when  the  sun  One  of  the  most  remarkable  things  is  that  all  these 
does.    Venus  is  a  beautiful  star  and  appears  either  just     heavenly  bodies  are  controlled  by  definite  laws.    The 


Fig.  541.  The  five-day  moon  as  it  looks 
through  the  telescope 


The  fixed  stars.  Beyond  the  solar  system,  far,  far  off 
in  space,  are  the  fixed  stars.  They  are  suns  shining  by 
their  own  light,  as  our  sun  does.  The  thousands  and 
thousands  of  stars  that  we  see  on  a  clear  night  are  so 
far  away  that  it  takes  years  for  their  light  to  reach  us, 
although  light  travels  186,000  miles  per  second.  If  you 
look  at  the  North  Star  to-night,  remember  when  you  see 
it  that  the  light  which  enters  your  eye  started  from  the 
star  forty  years  ago. 

Shooting  stars.    Sometimes  a  fragment  of  a  distant 

star  flying  through  space  comes  into  our  atmosphere. 

By  friction  in  the  air  it  becomes  white-hot,  and  then  we 

see  it  and  call  it  a  shooting  star.    Most  of  the  shooting 

stars  burn  to  dust,  but  a  few  fragments 

reach  the  earth  and  are  picked  up  and 

exhibited  in  museums.    Such  fragments 

of  stars  are  called  meteorites. 

Natural  sciences.  The  study  of  geog- 
raphy leads  to  an  interest  in  many 
sciences.  Physics  deals  with  the  great 
physical  forces  of  nature ;  chemistry 
deals  with  the  changes  that  take  place  in 
matter;  zoology  takes  up  the  study  of 
animals ;  botany  leads  to  a  knowledge 
and  understanding  of  plants ;  geology 
deals  with  the  history  of  the  earth  ;  but 
the  science  that  can  stretch  our  imagi- 
nation most  is  astronomy.  This  treats 
of  all  the  bodies  in  the  universe,  of  the 
immense  distances  between  heavenly 
bodies,  of  whirling  nebulae,  of  comets 
with  their  fiery  tails  millions  of  miles 
long,  of  shooting  stars,  and   of  many 


before  sunrise,  in  the  east,  as  a  morning  star,  or  just 
after  sunset,  in  the  west,  as  an  evening  star.  Mars  is 
redder  than  most,  of  the  stars.  There  is  a  snow-field 
about  the  polar  region  of  Mars,  and  this  snow-field 
grows  larger  in  the  winter  season  and  smaller  in  the 


appearance  of  the  planets  as  morning  or  evening  stars, 
the  eclipses,  the  return  of  comets,  may  be  figured  out 
and  predicted  hundreds  of  years  ahead  of  their  coming. 
All   the    great   natural   sciences   lead    us   to   realize 
that  the  forces  and  laws  of  nature  are  far  beyond  the 


summer  season.  Jupiter  is  a  very  brilliant  star  with  powers  of  man  to  control.  We  may  look  forward  to  dis- 
several  moons.  Saturn  appears  as  a  star,  but  if  looked  at  covering  more  and  more  of  these  laws,  and,  through  our 
through  a  telescope  it  is  found  to  be  quite  unlike  the  other     knowledge  and  will,  to  improving  the  living  conditions 


planets  in  having  two  brilliant  rings  and  several  moons. 
The  solar  system.  The  sun,  the  planets  with  their 
moons,  and  a  number  of  smaller  bodies  that  we  can- 
not see,  in  the  space  between  Mars  and  Jupiter,  make 
up  the  solar  system.  This  great  system  is  floating  in 
space.  The  sun  is  at  the  center,  and  all  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  system  move  about  the  sun  and  receive  heat 
and  light  from  it. 


on  this  earth.  The  study  of  the  sciences  leads  us,  how- 
ever, to  recognize  that  there  is  a  power  in  the  universe 
much  greater  than  that  in  human  beings. 

Home  work.  1.  Make  a  diagram  of  the  constellation  Ursa  Major, 
or  Great  Dipper,  and  show  how  those  stars  help  one  to  locate  the 
North  Star.  Find  the  Great  Dipper  in  the  northern  sky  and  locate 
the  North  Star.  2.  Make  two  diagrams  to  show  how  eclipses  of 
the  sun  and  moon  occur. 


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THE  UNITED  STATES  -  A  WORLD  POWER 

A  STUDY  IN  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


INTRODUCTION 

We  have  now  studied  all  the  countries  of  the  world,     travel  and  the  transportation  of  goods  on  land  and  water 
The  people  are  nearly  everywhere  engaged  in  producing     have  been  made  easy,  and  travel  and  the  transportation 


and  distributing  food  and  in  providing  shelter,  fuel, 
clothing,  and  other  comforts.  Most  people,  however, 
find  some  time  for  recreation. 

Certain  countries  are  densely  populated.  Some  have 
acquired  great  wealth  and  become  world  powers.  In  a 
very  short  period  in  the  history  of  the  nations  the 
United  States  has  become  one  of  the  leading  powers  in 
the  world.  Millions  of  people  have  migrated  from  the 
Old  World  to  the  New  World.  Why  have  they  done  so  ? 
Will  people  continue  to  leave  the  Eastern  Hemisphere  and 
come  to  live  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  ?  Most  of  our 
foreign  commerce  is  now  with  the  people  of  western 
Europe.  Will  that  continue  to  be  true  ?  It  is  important 
for  every  American  citizen  to  know  why  this  country  is 
so  attractive  to  settlers  and  how  the  United  States 
became  a  wealthy  and  powerful  nation.  It  is  important 
that  we  appreciate  the  leading  position  we  have  come  to 
hold  in  the  world,  and  the  responsibilities  that  now  lie 
before  us. 

In  our  earlier  study  of  the  United  States  we  learned 
that  the  life  and  occupations  of  the  people  in  each  of 
the  natural  regions  depended  chiefly  upon  the  climate, 
physical  features,  and  natural  resources  in  that  part  of 
the  country.  We  cannot  greatly  modify  the  physical 
features,  but  the  remarkable  work  of  engineers  has  made 
it  possible  to  overcome  many  difficulties  that  physical 
features  once  presented.  Great  rivers  are  bridged,  canals 
are  made,  tunnels  are  driven  beneath  rivers  and  through 
mountains,  wet  lands  are  drained,  dry  lands  are  watered, 


of  small  articles  in  the  air  are  becoming  more  common. 
The  submarine  cables,  the  telephones,  the  telegraphs, 
and  the  equipment  for  wireless  telegraphy  have  made 
it  possible  to  communicate  quickly  with  almost  any 
part  of  the  world. 

We  have  not  discovered  any  way  to  modify  the 
climate,  and  yet  men  have  learned  how  to  live  in  comfort 
under  various  climatic  conditions.  Homes  are  warmed 
artificially,  and  they  may  also  be  cooled  artificially.  We 
change  the  weight  of  our  clothing  from  season  to  season. 
Clothes  may  be  dried  regardless  of  the  weather.  Hot- 
houses are  built,  where  vegetables  may  be  raised  at  all 
seasons.   Rivers  are  diverted  to  water  desert  lands. 

The  scientific  study  of  the  air  has  led  to  the  predic- 
tion of  weather  conditions.  This  is  of  very  great  value  to 
man.  The  foretelling  of  frosts,  floods,  and  storms,  and  espe- 
cially storms  at  sea,  is  a  wonderful  step  forward  in  the 
conservation  of  life  and  property.  Men  will  continue  to 
invent  ways  of  overcoming  some  of  the  disadvantages 
that  come  with  the  changes  in  the  weather  from  day 
to  day  and  with  the  changes  in  the  climate  from  season 
to  season. 

In  the  development  of  our  natural  resources  there  are 
almost  limitless  possibilities.  Here  the  activities  of  men 
are  of  very  great  importance,  and  therefore  the  more  we 
know  about  the  natural  resources  the  better  it  will  be 
for  us  and  for  the  nation.  The  industrial  and  commercial 
prosperity  of  the  United  States  depends  largely  upon 
the  proper  use  and  conservation  of  these  resources. 


277 


278 


NATURAL  RESOURCES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


NATURAL  RESOURCES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

SOILS 

The  most  valuable  of  all  the  natural  resources  in  this 
country  are  the  soils.  They  form  a  layer,  or  mantle,  of 
loose  material  that  covers  most  of  the  land  surface. 
When  an  excavation  is  made  in  this  loose  material,  we 
usually  find  that  the  upper  part,  which  contains  decayed 
vegetable  matter,  has  a  darker  color  than  that  below. 
That  upper,  darker  part  is  the  soil,  and  the  more  com- 
pact material  just  below  is  the  subsoil.  In  many  excava- 
tions men  have  gone  below  the  subsoil  and  come  to  the 
solid  rock  of  the  earth. 

Cultivated  land  in  the  United  States.  The  amount  of 
cultivated  land  in  this  country  has  been  rapidly  increas- 
ing until  now  there  are  nearly  320,000,000  acres  that 
yield  crops  (Fig.  542).  In  almost  any  part  of  the  United 
States  where  there  is  good  soil  and  sufficient  rainfall, 
farming  may  be  profitable.  In  many  other  places  where 
the  soils  are  fertile  but  where  the  rainfall  is  very  light, 
irrigation  is  practiced  and  excellent  crops  are  obtained. 
We  have  under  cultivation  3.5  acres  for  each  person 
in  the  country,  while  most  European  countries  have  from 
1  to  1.5  acres  of  cultivated  lands  for  each  of  their  in- 
habitants. In  the  British  Isles  the  land  yielding  crops 
amounts  to  less  than  half  an  acre  for  each  person.  The 
only  countries  where  more  acres  per  person  are  culti- 
vated than  in  the  United  States  are  the  sparsely  settled 
countries  such  as  Argentina  and  Canada. 

The  table  in  the  next  column  indicates  the  percentage 
of  land  that  is  cultivated  in  those  states  where  the  amount 
is  over  20  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  state.  Iowa 

now  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  list. 
More  than  80  per 
cent  of  the  whole 
area  of  this  state 
is  under  cultiva- 
tion. Nearly  all 
the  states  in  the 
upper  portion  of 
the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi  rank 
high,  while  those 
states  that  are 
in  mountainous 
or  dry  regions  of 
the  west  are  so 
far  down  in  the 
list  that  they  do 
not  appear  in 
this   table. 


C.  B.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Fig.  542.  There  are  1,903,000,000  acres  of  land  in 
the  United  States.  This  diagram  shows  how  the 
land  is  being  used.  Notice  that  about  one  fourth 
of  the  land  is  improved.  This  means  that  it  is  cul- 
tivated. Much  of  the  forest  and  woodland  can  be 
improved  and  used  to  produce  farm  crops 


V.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Fig.  543.  This  map  shows  the  more  important  corn-producing  sections  of  out 
country.  Where  the  dots  are  thickest  the  corn  acreage  is  greatest.  Notice 
that  most  of  the  corn  is  grown  where  the  summer  rainfall  (June,  July,  and 
August)  amounts  to  more  than  eight  inches,  and  where  the  average  summer 
temperature  is  over  66°  F.   What  are  the  chief  corn-producing  states  ? 

PER  CENT  OF  IMPROVED  LAND  IN  TOTAL  LAND  AREA  (1920) 

State                               Per  Cent  State                               Per  Cent 

Iowa 80.4      Oklahoma 40.8 

Illinois 76.1      South  Dakota 37.0 

Indiana 72.3      Virginia 36.7 

Ohio 71.1       West  Virginia 35.9 

Kansas 58.5      Wisconsin 35.2 

Missouri 56.5      Michigan 35.1 

North  Dakota 54.7      Georgia 34.7 

Kentucky 54.3      New  Jersey 32.3 

Delaware 51.9  South  Carolina      ....  31.7 

Maryland 49.3      Mississippi 31.4 

Nebraska 47.0      Alabama 30.1 

New  York 43.1      Vermont 29.0 

Tennessee 41.9      Arkansas 27.5 

Minnesota 41.5  North  Carolina      ....  26.3 

Pennsylvania 41.3      Connecticut 22.7 

This  country's  very  great  extent  of  cultivated  land 
with  a  good  yield  per  acre  assures  Americans  a  large 
food  supply.  The  United  States  produces  more  food  per 
person  than  any  other  country  with  a  large  population. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  important  facts  in  explaining 
the  comfort  and  well-being  of  the  people  in  this  country 
and  the  immigration  of  people  to  the  United  States. 
More  food  is  produced  in  the  United  States  than  is 
needed  by  the  population,  and  that  makes  it  possible  to 
ship  large  quantities  to  foreign  countries. 

Our  leading  food  crops.  Corn  is  our  largest  crop,  and  we 
use  most  of  the  corn  we  produce.  Of  the  2,700,000,000 
bushels  produced,  on  the  average,  each  year  from  1910  to 
1914  only  41,000,000  bushels  were  exported.  During  that 
same  period  we  produced,  on  the  average,  1,100,000,000 
bushels  of  oats,  and  exported  each  year  only  10,000,000 
bushels.  We  should  remember,  however,  that  corn  and 
oats  are  largely  fed  to  live  stock,  and  that  we  export 
large  quantities  of  meat  each  year  (Fig.  543). 


SOILS 


279 


Wheat  is  one  of  the  most  important  food  crops  in 
the  world,  and  we  produce  so  much  wheat  that  we  can 
export  over  100,000,000  bushels  a  year.  The  United 
States  is  one  of  six  countries  that  have  a  larger  amount 
of  wheat  than  they  need  (Fig.  544).  The  others  are 
Russia,  Canada,  Argentina,  Australia,  and  India.  In 
Russia  and  India  the  people  do  not  use  as  much  wheat 
per  person  as  in  other  large  wheat-producing  countries. 

The  chief  countries  that  import  large  quantities  of 
wheat  are  the  British  Isles,  Germany,  Belgium,  Italy, 
France,  and  the  Netherlands.  A  large  part  of  the  wheat 
exported  from  the  United  States  goes  to  the  British 
Isles,  the  Netherlands,  and  Belgium. 

The  British  Isles  and  the  Netherlands  are  our  largest 
customers  for  food  crops  ;  but  much  of  the  food  shipped 
to  the  Netherlands  is  reshipped  to  other  countries  in 
continental  Europe. 

Large  quantities  of  fruit  and  vegetables  are  now  being 
raised  in  the  United  States.  Near  each  of  the  cities 
there  are  areas  devoted  to  intensive  truck,  or  garden, 
farming,  and  throughout  the  country  ahnost  every  farmer 
has  a  vegetable  garden.  More  and  more  land  is  being 
used  for  orchards. 

Our  chief  food  imports.  As  a  nation  we  use  each  year 
more  coffee,  sugar,  and  rice  than  we  produce.  These 
are  brought  from  other  countries.  We  depend  also  upon 
foreign  countries  for  tea,  olive  oil,  cocoa,  and  bananas. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  could  easily  produce 
more  rice,  more  sugar,-and  more  olive  oil,  for  the  geo- 
graphic conditions  in  southern  California,  in  the  Southern 
states,  and  in  our  island  possessions  are  favorable  to  their 
production,  and  the  crops  are  usually  increased  each  year. 
We  shall  without  any  doubt  always  depend  upon  foreign 
countries  for  most  of  our  coffee,  tea,  cocoa,  and  bananas. 


S"GAR  BEETS 

TP^ 

arfBffEBSff 

-/-3S?o&3<§sISugar 

^wa§gciSi2sEETS 

S}«#«st?pC«C.HUM| 

i1  '-'^Hm/   CANE 
A/VsORGHUM  CANE 

s  :-ar       SUCARCANE 

■"'    

^wr^ff© 

-tiTT 

CANE 

^J[  C]\  ^     rfrffWn^ 

SUGAR 

SORGHUM  CANE^?§^Sp2g 
SORGHUM  CANE 

U.  8-  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Fig.  544.  This  map  shows  the  leading  wheat-producing  areas  of  the  United 
States.  What  states  are  evidently  the  chief  producers  of  wheat  ?  Very  little 
wheat  is  raised  in  the  southeastern  states  that  border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
or  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  for  the  climate  there  is  too  moist.  Why  is  so  little 
wheat  raised  in  New  Mexico  ?  Arizona  ?  Nevada  ?  Wyoming  ?  New  England  ? 


U.  8-  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Fig.  545.  The  dots  on  this  map  indicate  the  parts  of  our  country  where  a 
considerable  acreage  is  devoted  to  sugar  crops.  There  are  three  distinct  belts 
of  sugar  crops :  in  the  southeast,  especially  on  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  sugar  cane  is  raised ;  farther  north  and  west  sorghum  cane  is  grown ; 
and  still  farther  north  and  west  are  the  fields  of  sugar  beets 

A  small  amount  of  coffee  is  raised  in  Porto  Rico  and 
Hawaii,  but  three  fourths  of  our  coffee  is  imported  from 
Brazil,  and  most  of  the  remainder  from  other  countries 
in  South  America  or  Central  America.  In  the  United 
States  we  use,  on  the  average,  9.4  pounds  of  coffee  per 
person  each  year.  That  is  a  tremendous  amount  of  coffee 
and  represents  a  very  large  import  business. 

Most  of  the  tea  used  in  the  United  States  comes  from 
Japan  and  China.  We  use,  on  the  average,  about  one 
pound  per  person  each  year. 

A  high  grade  of  olive  oil  is  now  being  produced  in 
this  country,  but  we  still  import  large  quantities  from 
both  Italy  and  France. 

We  produce  in  this  country,  on  the  average,  7.4  pounds 
of  rice  per  person,  but  we  use  9.6  pounds.  That  means 
a  large  import  trade.  Japan  and  China  furnish  nearly 
all  the  rice  we  need  to  import.  The  production  of  rice 
on  the  low  lands  of  our  Southern  states  might  well  be 
increased. 

As  a  people  we  consume  a  very  large  amount  of 
sugar.  The  amount  produced  in  the  States,  in  Hawaii, 
and  in  Porto  Rico  is  not  enough  to  satisfy  the  demand, 
and  large  quantities  are  therefore  imported,  chiefly  from 
Cuba.  We  might,  however,  greatly  increase  our  produc- 
tion of  beet  sugar  in  the  United  States  (Fig.  545). 

We  receive  most  of  our  cocoa  from  the  West  Indies 
and  South  America,  and  the  bulk  of  our  supply  of 
bananas  comes  from  Central  America  and  the  West 
Indies. 

From  this  summary  of  food  imports  it  may  be  seen 
that  the  United  States  depends  upon  foreign  countries 
for  very  few  articles  of  food  that  are  of  real  importance, 
and  that  most  of  those  are  supplied  by  countries  in  the 
Western  Hemisphere. 


280 


SOILS 


Fig.  546.  This  is  a  deep-tillage  machine  for  use  on  land  that  must  be  plowed 

especially  deep.  The  use  of  agricultural  machinery,  in  place  of  hand  labor, 

is  one  of  the  means  by  which  the  production  of  food  crops  in  our  country 

may  be  increased.   What  other  ways  can  you  suggest  ? 


Fig.  547.   This  man  is  testing  the  soil  to  find  out  how  much  moisture  it  con- 
tains. In  this  way  he  can  judge  what  crops  can  best  be  grown  on  the  land, 
and  whether  irrigation  or  dry  farming  will  be  necessary.   Can  you  explain 
what  dry  farming  is  ?  Of  what  value  is  it  ? 


Can  we  increase  the  production  of  food  crops  ?    This  in  the  West  that  could  be  irrigated  if  necessary.  That  is 

will  be  the  important  question  in  the  United  States  as  about  double  the  present  amount  of  irrigated  land.   It 

the  population  increases.     Most  of  the  better  farming  should  be  noted,  however,  that  there  are  more  lands  all 

land  is  now  in  use,  but  there  are  several  possibilities  ready  to  be  irrigated  in  several  of  the  national  irrigation 

before  us.  projects  than  people  are  willing  to  buy  at  present  prices 

1.  More  land  to  be  cleared.    There  are  some  forested  (Fig.  548). 

areas,  some  woodlands,  and  some  cut-over  areas  that  are  4.  Use  of  stony  lands.  Many  of  the  stony  pastures  and 


suitable  for  cultivation  and  could  best  be  used  as  farm 
lands.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
has  estimated  that  there  are  about  200,000,000  acres  of 
such  lands  that  could  be  used  for  raising  food  crops 
after  they  are  cleared.  If  this  land  were  divided  into 
farms  of  160  acres  each,  it  would  provide  1,250,000  such 
farms.  That  would  be  an  addition  of  about  20  per  cent 
to  the  number  of  farms  now  in  the  United  States. 

2.  More  land  to  be  drained.  The  Department  of  Agri- 
culture has  made  the  estimate  that  there  are  at  least 
60,000,000  acres  of  swamps  and  other  wet  lands  that 
can  be  drained  and  made  suitable  for  the  production  of 
food  crops.   These  lands  could  all  be  cultivated,  and  they 


hilly  regions  may  in  time  be  used  for  raising  crops.  These 
are  located  chiefly  in  the  well-watered  Eastern  states  and 
include  some  of  the  so-called  abandoned  farms  of  New 
England.    Much  of  this  land  is  suitable  for  orchards. 

5.  Dry  farming.  Methods  of  dry  farming  may  be 
improved,  and  more  semidesert  land  can  then  be  profit- 
ably used  in  this  way  (Fig.  547). 

6.  More  intensive  cultivation.  By  practicing  more  in- 
tensive cultivation,  by  using  greater  quantities  of  ferti- 
lizers, and  by  taking  advantage  of  scientific  discoveries, 
the  production  of  food  crops  per  acre  can  be  increased. 
This  means  a  better  use  of  the  better  lands.  Many  of 
our  farmers  have  been  very  successful  in  increasing  the 


might  be  divided  into  160-acre  farms  and  thus  make     production  per  acre  on  their   lands,  but  the  average 


375,000  more  farms  in  the  United 
States.  These  lands  are  located  largely 
in  the  great  flood  plain  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  and  in  the  flood  plains  of 
other  rivers,  chiefly  in  the  Gulf  Coastal 
Plain.  There  are  also  wet  lands  and 
peat  bogs  in  the  Northeastern  states 
and  in  those  states  near  the  Great 
Lakes  that  were  invaded  by  the  con- 
tinental ice-sheets. 

3.  More  land  to  be  irrigated.   There 
are  probably  30,000,000  acres  of  land 


Fig.  548.  This  dreary-looking  desert  region  can 
be  transformed  into  good  farming  land  if  it  is 
properly  irrigated.  Describe  the  changes  that 
would  come  to  such  a  region  through  irrigation 


yield  per  acre  in  the  United  States  is 
below  that  in  several  of  the  older 
countries.  For  example,  while  we  pro- 
duce on  the  average  a  little  more  than 
15  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  Belgium 
produces  nearly  40  bushels  per  acre, 
and  in  fact  nearly  all  the  countries 
of  western  Europe  produce  more  per 
acre  than  we  do.  There  are  great 
possibilities  in  increasing  the  produc- 
tion per  acre  of  the  leading  food  crops 
of  the  United  States  (Fig.  546). 


SOILS 


281 


Problems  and  review  questions. 
1.  How  does  the  amount  of 
cultivated  land  in  the  United 
States  compare  with  that  in 
other  large  countries  ?  2.  Why 
is  the  cultivation  of  the  soil 
so  important  to  the  welfare  of 
a  nation  ? 

3.  What  are  our  chief  food 
crops?  4.  Which  of  the  food 
crops  are  so  large  that  we  have 
some  of  the  raw  material  to 
export  ?  5.  What  nation  is  our 
largest  customer  for  foods  ? 
6.  What  are  the  chief  foods 
imported  by  the  United  States  ? 
From  what  countries  do  most 
of  them  come  ? 

7.  Which  of  the  foods  imported  in  large  quantities  come  from 
the  Eastern  Hemisphere  ?  8.  How  may  the  amount  of  land  avail- 
able for  farms  be  increased  ?  9.  How  may  the  production  of  food 
crops  per  acre  be  increased  ? 

Home  work.  1.  What  kinds  of  soH  are  there  in  the  vicinity 
of  your  home  ?  How  thick  are  they  ?  Have  they  been  fertilized  ? 
If  so,  how  ?  2.  What  are  the  chief  products  from  the  soils  in  the 
vicinity  of  your  home  city  or  town  ? 

Conservation  of  soils.  Plants  receive  much  of  their 
nourishment  from  the  soils,  and  the  animal  life  of  the 
world  depends  upon  the  plant  life.  It  takes  but  a 
moment's  thought  to  make  us  realize  that  we  are  abso- 
lutely dependent  upon  the  soils  from  which  most  of  our 
food  and  all  of  the  raw  materials  for  our  clothes  come 
directly  or  indirectly.  Human  beings  could  not  live  on  this 
earth  if  there  were  no  soils  here,  and  the  prosperity  of  a 
nation  usually  depends  chiefly  upon  the  extent  and  quality 
of  its  soils.  Therefore  the  preservation  of  the  soils  and  the 
maintaining  of  their  fertility  are  the  most  important  of 
the  problems  of  conservation  that  are  before  this  nation. 


Fig.  849.  The  low  flood  plains  along  the  rivers  are  among  the  richest  agri- 
cultural lands  in  our  country.  They  are  flat,  extremely  fertile,  and  easily 
cultivated.  Such  lands  must  be  protected  against  the  spring  floods  which 
sometimes  wash  away  the  soils  and  make  it  necessary  for  the  farmers  to 
plant  their  fields  a  second  time 


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To  preserve  the  soils  we 

must  see,  in  the  first  place, 
that  they  are  not  washed 
away  (Fig.  549).  The  rivers 
are  very  active,  and  each 
year  they  gather  up  millions 
of  tons  of  the  very  best  of 
soil-making  material  and 
carry  it  to  the  ocean  or  to 
the  lakes.  In  some  places 
in  our  country,  where 
the  forest  or  other  native 
vegetation  has  been  re- 
moved from  steep  slopes 
and  the  land  cultivated, 
the  soils  have  been  washed  away  in  from  ten  to  fifteen 
years.  That  is  a  great  mistake.  China  has  ruined 
thousands  of  acres  of  good  land  in  that  way,  and  we 
should  not  be  guilty  of  such  foolishness.  Slopes  that 
are  too  steep  to  hold  their  soils  when  cultivated  should 
be  left  forested  or  should  be  used  as  pasture  land. 

In  plowing  lands  that  are  not  level  or  nearly  so,  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  have  the  furrows  run  with  the 
slope.  When  they  run  with  the  slope,  rain  water  col- 
lects and  flows  in  the  furrows,  increasing  in  amount 
and  speed  until  streams  form  which  carry  away  the  soil. 
On  lands  that  have  even  a  gentle  slope,  that  is,  from  5 
to  15  degrees,  contour  plowing  should  be  practiced.  In 
contour  plowing  the  furrows  follow  around  or  along  the 
hillsides.  Each  furrow  is  at  a  definite  level.  Such  fur- 
rows do  not  make  runways  for  the  rain  water,  and  the 
soils  are  not  washed  away.  In  addition  to  saving  the 
soils,  contour  plowing  forces  more  of  the  rain  water 
to  sink  into  the  ground,  and  that  water  is  absorbed  by 
the  plants  and  helps  to  produce  larger  or  better  crops. 


Fig.  SSO.  Among  the  mechanical  inventions  of  recent  years  none  has  been 
more  useful  to  the  farmer  than  the  motor  tractor.  This  tractor  is  driven  by 
an  automobile  engine  and  is  used  to  draw  the  different  farm  machines  over 
the  fields,  thus  doing  the  work  which  formerly  was  always  done  by  horses 


Fig.  551.  This  man  is  spreading  lime  on  his  farm  land  before  planting. 
Lime  is  an  important  fertilizing  substance.  By  mixing  it  with  such  soils 
as  need  it  the  farmer  can  increase  the  amount  of  crops  which  his  land  will 
yield  per  acre.    What  would  happen  if  farmers  never  fertilized  their  land  ? 


282 


SOILS 


Fig.  552.  Here  is  a  Kentucky  hemp  field  after  the  harvest  season.  The  hemp 
is  stacked  up  to  allow  the  straw  to  decay  enough  so  that  the  fiber  can  be 
separated  easily.  This  process  is  called  retting.  Hemp-growing  in  the 
United  States  is  not  important  as  compared  with  the  European  industry 

Slopes  that  are  steeper  than  20  degrees  should  ordi- 
narily be  used  for  forests  or  some  tree  culture.  Orchards 
may  be  planted  on  such  hillsides.  If  a  field  is  not  used, 
it  should  have  some  protective  covering,  such  as  clover 
or  soy  beans,  to  help  hold  the  soil  and  to  enrich  it. 

To  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soils  we  must  follow 
the  advice  of  intelligent,  experienced  farmers,  of  trained 
students  of  agriculture,  and  of  other  scientists  who  have 
made  special  studies  of  this  problem. 

The  air,  water,  and  soil  contain  in  abundance  most  of 
the  food  elements  needed  by  plants.  There  are,  however, 
three  elements  —  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus 
—  that  plants  use  up  very  rapidly ;  and  if  we  wish  to 
use  the  lands  continuously  in  farming,  we  must  assist 
in  returning  these  elements  to  the  soil  (Fig.  551). 

Nitrogen.  Certain  plants  such  as  the  grains,  cotton, 
and  tobacco  take  large  quantities  of  nitrogen  compounds 
from  the  soil.  After  such  crops  have  been  raised,  other 
plants  that  help  to  restore  nitrogen  to  the  soil  should  be 
planted.  A  group  of  plants  that  include  clover,  alfalfa, 
peas,  and  beans  have  little  nodules  on  their  roots,  where 
bacteria  live.    The  bacteria  take  nitrogen  from  the  air 


and  combine  it  with  other  elements  to  make  compounds 
called  nitrates.  The  nitrates  are  stored  in  the  roots, 
stalks,  and  fruits  of  those  plants.  The  farmer  who 
"plows  under"  such  a  crop  will  therefore  enrich  his 
soil  with  nitrogen. 

By  choosing  wisely  and  changing  the  crop  on  a  field 
each  year,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  may  be  maintained  or 
even  improved.  The  practice  of  changing  the  crop  on 
a  given  field  each  year  is  called  the  rotation  of  crops. 
Repeating  the  same  crop  on  a  given  field  year  after 
year  will  result  in  poorer  crops  and  in  injury  to  the  soil. 

By  using  electricity  nitrogen  may  be  taken  from  the 
air  and  combined  with  other  substances,  such  as  lime- 
stone, to  make  fertilizers.  This  is  now  being  done. 
Certain  nitrate  deposits  in  Chile  are  imported  and  used 
to  fertilize  worn-out  soils,  and  manures  are  also  used  on 
the  fields  so  as  to  return  nitrogen  compounds  to  the  soil. 


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Fig.  553.   Many  boys  in  Ohio  and  southwestern  Pennsylvania  have  learned 

to  take  care  of  sheep.    This  district,  with  its  good  pasture  lands,  has 

become  famous  for  its  pure,  high-bred  stock.  See  map,  Fig.  556 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Fig.  554.  This  map  shows  the  cotton-producing  sections  of  the  southern 
states.  Very  little  cotton  is  grown  where  there  are  less  than  200  days  with- 
out frost  or  less  than  23  inches  of  rainfall  each  year.  The  places  where  the 
dots  are  thickest  have  very  rich  soils.  The  shaded  areas  in  California  and 
Arizona  are  places  where  Egyptian  cotton  is  grown  under  irrigation 

Potassium  is  another  important  element  in  the  food  of 
plants  that  we  must  help  to  keep  in  the  soils.  Potas- 
sium salts  are  sometimes  imported  for  use  as  fertilizers. 
Kelp,  which  grows  in  large  quantities  on  the  surface  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean  west  of  North  America,  has  been  used 
to  produce  potassium  compounds,  and  some  deposits  of 
potassium  salts  have  been  discovered  in  the  western 
part  of  our  country. 

Phosphorus  is  the  third  food  element  of  plants  that  is 
important  for  us  to  assist  in  returning  to  the  soils. 
Phosphate  rock  has  been  found  in  large  quantities  in 
Florida,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Utah,  Wyoming, 
and  Idaho.  More  phosphate  rock  is  quarried  in  Florida 
each  year  than  in  any  other  state.  The  rock  is  ground 
up  and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  a  very  good  fertilizer. 

Phosphorus  compounds  are  made  from  the  bones  of 
animals  and  other  by-products  from  the  great  slaughter- 
houses. Those  compounds  are  returned  to  the  farmers 
as  fertilizers. 

Manures  also  contain  phosphorus  compounds  and  are 
therefore  doubly  valuable  as  fertilizers.  They  contain 
both  nitrogen  and  phosphorus  compounds. 


SOILS 


283 


U.  B.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Fig.  555.  This  map  shows  where  the  larger  numbers  of  cattle  are  raised  in 
our  country.  Why  is  cattle-raising  more  general  in  the  eastern  half  of  the 
United  States  than  in  the  western  half  ?  Explain  the  clear  spaces  in  north- 
ern Maine,  northeastern  New  York,  northern  Minnesota,  southern  Florida, 
southern  Nevada,  southeastern  California,  and  western  Arizona 


U.  8.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 

Fig.  556.  This  map  shows  where  the  larger  numbers  of  sheep  are  raised  in 
our  country.  Most  of  the  sheep  in  the  United  States  are  in  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  the  semiarid  or  mountainous  parts  of  the  states  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  The  hilly  pasture  lands  of  Ohio  and  the  neighboring  parts  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  West  Virginia  are  also  used  for  sheep-raising  (Fig.  553) 


Other  uses  of  the  land  aside  from  the  production  of  portions  of  Iowa  and  Illinois,  in  New  York  State,  in 

food  crops.    The  crops  of  cotton,  flax,  and  hemp  are  also  eastern  Pennsylvania,  and  in  the  New  England  states, 

of  great  importance  to  the  people  of  the  United  States.  About  half  of  the  cheese  factories  in  the  United  States 

The  cotton  is  used  for  making  cloth,  and  the  cotton  seeds  are  in  Wisconsin,  and  over  one  fourth  are  in  New  York 

yield  an  oil  that  is  being  used  more  and  more  as  a  food.  State.   Dairy  farming  is  most  prosperous  in  regions  with 

It  is  taking  the  place  of  olive  oil  in  many  ways,  and  it  rich  pastures  near  large  markets  (Fig.  557). 


is  used  in  making  soap.  After  the  oil  has  been  ex- 
tracted, the  rest  of  the  seed  is  used  as  a  food  for  cattle 
or  sometimes  as  a  fertilizer  (Fig.  554). 

Flax  is  used  in  making  linen,  and  the  seed  furnishes 
linseed  oil,  which  is  used  in  the  making  of  paints,  oil- 
cloths, and  other  useful  things.  The  chief  use  of  hemp 
is  in  the  manufacture  of  rope  (Fig.  552). 

Live  stock  could  not  be  raised  if  it  were  not  for  the 
grasses  and  grains  that  are  supported  by  the  soils. 
Horses,  mules,  cattle,  sheep, 
and  goats  are  needed  in 
large  numbers.  Many  of  the 
lands  that  are  semiarid  or 
have  soils  too  poor  to  be 
cultivated  are  used  for  graz- 
ing. Among  the  mountains 
there  are  excellent  pasture 
lands  for  sheep  and  cattle 
(Figs.  555,  556). 

Dairy  cattle  are  raised 
very  generally  throughout 
the  country  to  supply  local 
needs.  Near  each  of  the 
larger  cities  there  are  many 
dairy  farms.  Creameries  are 
very  common  in  the  south- 
ern parts  of  Minnesota  and 
Wisconsin,  in  the  northern 


Fig.  557.   These  are  dairy  cows.   They  are  tended  with  great  care,  so  that 

they  may  produce  rich,  pure  milk.    After  the  morning  milking  they  are 

turned  into  a  good  pasture  to  graze.   Toward  evening  they  are  driven  into 

a  barn,  where  they  are  milked ;  then  they  are  turned  out  for  the  night 


Hogs  are  produced  chiefly  in  the  corn  belt,  although 
they  are  common  throughout  the  more  thickly  settled, 
well-watered  portions  of  the  United  States  east  of  the 
Great  Plains. 

Poultry-farming  is  also  an  important  industry,  and 
near  each  of  the  large  cities  the  poultry  farms  are 
numerous  and  cover  considerable  areas  of  land. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Why  is  it  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  the  nation  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  the  soils  ? 

2.  How  do  the  plants  secure 
their  food  ?  3.  What  food  ele- 
ments needed  by  the  plants 
should  we  help  to  keep  in  the 
soil? 

4.  What  kinds  of  fertilizers 
do  you  know  of  ?  5.  What 
plants  help  to  restore  nitrogen 
to  the  soils  ?  6.  What  is  meant 
by  rotation  of  crops  ?  7.  Aside 
from  the  production  of  food 
crops,  what  uses  are  made  of 
the  land  ?  8.  What  industries 
are  directly  dependent  upon  the 
raisingof  cotton,  flax, and  hemp? 
9.  What  industries  depend 
directly  upon  the  raising  of 
animals?  10.  What  arguments 
can  you  now  give  in  support  of 
the  statement  that  the  soils 
are  the  most  important  of  the 
natural  resources  of  the  nation  ? 


284 


FORESTS 


and  those  who  are  engaged  in  building  houses  have  not 
always  been  careful  to  use  up  the  small  pieces  of  lumber. 
The  old-fashioned  way  of  tapping  certain  pine  trees 
to  get  the  sap,  or  resin,  from  which  turpentine  is  made, 
usually  killed  the  trees  within  five  years.    If  modern 


FORESTS 

Original  extent.  The  original  forests  of  the  United 
States  were  among  the  most  valuable  in  the  world. 
They  covered  a  large  area  and  contained  a  great  variety 
of  useful  trees  (Fig.  558). 

Destruction  of  our  forests.    Nearly  half  of  the  more  methods  are  used,  the  trees  will  live  much  longer  and 

valuable  timber  in  this  country  has  been  cut.    We  have  even  more  resin  will  be  secured. 

been  a  most  extravagant  people  in  the  use  of  wood.  It  is  Forest  fires  have  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  loss, 
estimated  that  on  the  average  we  now  use  per  person  ten  Some  of  the  fires  have  been  unavoidable,  such  as  those 
times  as  much  wood  as  the  people  in  France  and  about  caused  by  lightning,  but  many  have  been  due  to  careless- 
twenty  times  as  much  as  the  people  in  Great  Britain.  ness.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  campers  should 

In  the  early  days  of  settlement  in  the  eastern  half  of  not  leave  fires  burning.    Everyone  who  visits  our  forests 

the  country  the  forests  were  often  considered  objection-  should  take  care  not  to  cause  a  forest  fire,  and  should 

able.    It  took  a  great  deal  of  hard  work  to  clear  the  fields  volunteer,  if  possible,  to  help  put  out  such  a  fire. 


for  cultivation.  Manytimes 
there  was  no  market  for 
the  wood,  and  great  piles 
of  logs  were  burned.  With 
the  rapid  increase  in  our 
population  came  a  very 
large  demand  for  lumber. 
More  wood  was  used  as 
fuel  than  in  any  other  way ; 
but  millions  of  homes  were 
built,  great  factories  were 
constructed,  and  fences, 
barns,  furniture,  and  thou- 
sands of  useful  articles  were 
made  of  wood.  Of  late 
years  large  quantities  of 
wood  are  being  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  paper. 

In  some  places  where  the 
forests  have  been  destroyed 


©  AmerR-iu  Ueograpbic&l  Societj  of  New  York 

Fig.  558.  This  map  shows  the  forest  areas  of  the  United  States.  Originally 
the  forests  were  almost  unbroken  from  the  Atlantic  coast  to  the  eastern  margin 
of  the  Great  Plains.  To-day  much  of  this  great  area  has  been  cleared.  Where 
are  the  evergreen  forests  ?  Where  are  the  hardwood  forests  ?  Why  are  there 
so  few  trees  in  the  Great  Plains  and  the  Western  Plateaus  ? 


Lumbering  districts.  The 
forests  in  New  England 
were  the  first  center  of  the 
lumbering  business ;  later 
Michigan  became  the  lead- 
ing producing  region ;  and 
as  settlement  pushed  west- 
ward Wisconsin  and  Minne- 
sota each  had  a  turn  at  first 
place.  When  the  Northern 
forests  had  been  largely 
used,  those  in  the  Southern 
states  were  turned  to,  and 
then  the  forests  of  the 
Northwest.  To-day  Wash- 
ington produces  more  lum- 
ber than  any  other  state, 
and  Oregon  ranks  third. 
Each    one  of    the   states 


bordering  upon  the  Gulf 

the  soils  have  been  washed  away,  and  that  has  increased  of  Mexico  is  a  large  producer  of  lumber.  Mississippi 
the  danger  of  river  floods.  The  forests  bind  the  soils,  stands  fourth  of  all  states  in  production  (Fig.  559). 
and  the  soils  help  to  retain  the  rain-water  in  the  ground,         A  permanent  supply  of  lumber.    It  is  of  real  impor- 


or  allow  it  to  flow  away  slowly  and  evenly.  If  our 
forests  had  not  been  removed,  the  flow  of  many  of  the 
streams  in  this  country  would  be  more  uniformpand  that 


tance  to  us  to  have,  here  at  home,  a  permanent  supply 
of  lumber  that  will  meet  our  needs.  Most  of  the  Euro- 
pean x?oimtries  import  wood.    Russia,  Sweden,  Norway, 


would  make  the  streams  more  valuable  in  developing  "Czechoslovakia,  and  Austria  are  the  only  countries  in 


water-power. 

Waste  in  the  use  of  wood.  While- we  have  used  wood 
freely  and  for  the  most  part  for  excellent  purposes,  we 
have  been  guilty  of  wasting  large  quantities  of  very 
valuable  timber.    Many  times,  when  the  trees  were  cut 


Europe  with  wood  to  spare.  Those  countries  are  cutting 
more  each  year  than  can  be  grown ;  their  surplus  will 
therefore  become  less,  and  undoubtedly  it  will  all  be 
needed  in  Europe.  The  countries  of  Africa,  South 
America,  Central  America,  and  Mexico  have  little  but 


during  the  winter  and  heavy  snows  were  oh  the  ground,  tropical  woods,  which  are  more  difficult  to  work  than  the 

high  stumps  were  left.    Thousands  of  trees  that  have  softer  woods  of  the  temperate  zone.     Canada  is  now 

been  blown  down  have  been  left  in  the  forest,  and  many  selling   some   lumber  to  us,  but  it  cannot   help  very 

undersized  trees  have  been  taken  for  lumber.    Each  tree  much.    China,  Australia,  and  India  now  have  less  lum- 

should  be  allowed  to  mature  and  thus  gain  its  full  size  ber  than  they  need.   Siberia  has  the  one  large  unexplored 

before  it  is  cut  down.    Men  in  sawmills  and  in  factories  and  almost  untouched  temperate  forest  in  the  world. 


FORESTS 


285 


BILLIONS  OF  BOARD  FEET 

>                    1                     2                    3                     4 

2  Louisiana 
8  Oregon 

4  Mississippi 

5  Arkansas 

6  Texas 

7  California 

8  Wisconsin 

9  Alabama 

10  North  Carolina 

11  Minnesota 

12  Florida 

13  Michigan 

14  Virginia 

15  Idaho 

16  West  Virginia 

17  Maine 

18  Tennessee 

19  South  Carolina 

20  Pennsylvania 

21  Georgia 

22  New  Hampshire 

23  Kentucky 

24  Montana 

25  New  York 

26  Missouri 

27  Indiana 

28  Ohio 

29  Oklahoma 

30  Massachusetts 

31  Vermont                       I 

■ 

All  other  states  (17) 

mm* 

Fig.  559.   This  table  shows  the  order  of  importance  of  the  states  in  the  pro- 
duction of  lumber.'  A  board  foot  of  lumber  is  a  piece  of  wood  12  inches  square 
and  not  over  1  inch  thick.  How  does  your  state  rank  in  lumber  production  ? 
If  its  name  does  not  appear,  explain  why  its  production  is  so  small 

There  are,  however,  several  ways  by  which  we  may 
help  to  provide  a  good  permanent  supply  of  lumber  in 
this  country. 

1 .  So  far  as  possible  we  must  stop  the  various  wastes 
already  mentioned. 

2.  Burned-over  areas  should  be  reforested. 

3.  Many  areas  where  the  forests  have  been  cut  off 
have  soils  too  poor  to  cultivate.  Such  areas  should  be 
reforested. 

4.  Many  forests  are  not  fully  stocked  with  trees.  In 
such  places  more  trees  should  be  planted.  No  soil  is  too 
poor  and  no  slope  too  steep  for  trees  if 
they  can  get  hold  with  their  roots  and 
receive  enough  moisture  throughout 
the  year.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  a  mixed  forest  will  produce  more 
cubic  feet  of  wood  per  acre  per  year 
than  a  forest  of  only  one  variety  of  tree. 
Some  trees  are  very  eager  for  the  sun, 
and  others  do  fairly  well  in  partly 
shaded  places.  This  is  illustrated  in 
the  natural  forests  of  Washington  and 
Oregon.  There  the  great  Douglas  fir  is 
the  tall  tree,  and  with  it  are  the  much 
lower  hemlock  and  red  cedar.  By  study 
and  experiment  we  must  learn  how 
to  secure  the  maximum  production 
of  wood  per  acre,  just  as  we  strive 
to  secure  the  maximum  production  of 
wheat  per  acre. 


5.  The  life  of  much  of  the  timber  that  we  use  may  be 
extended  by  dipping  it  into  creosote.  That  is  a  tarry 
liquid  which  will  fill  the  pores  of  the  wood  and  prevent 
water  or  insects  from  entering  and  causing  decay.  Posts, 
railroad  ties,  paying  blocks,  shingles,  and  the  wooden 
piles  of  wharves  and  bridges,  when  properly  treated  with 
creosote,  last  many  years  longer  than  they  otherwise 
could. 

6.  We  must  keep  up  a  constant  battle  with  the  insects 
that  injure  and  may  kill  the  trees. 

7.  In  many  cases  substitutes  for  wood  may  be  used. 
This  is  being  done  on  a  large  scale.  Natural  stones, 
bricks,  concrete,  terra  cotta,  tiles,  and  steel  are  now 
commonly  used  in  building.  Steel  cars  are  taking  the 
places  of  wooden  ones,  and  steel  furnishings  in  offices 
and  libraries  are  in  use.  These  substitutes  for  wood 
also  offer  a  great  advantage  in  reducing  the  losses  by 
fire.    That  helps  in  the  conservation  of  resources. 

The  public  and  private  forests  all  need  to  be  carefully 
guarded,  and  men  must  be  trained  for  this  work.  Scien- 
tific forestry  must  be  promoted.  It  is  a  profession  that 
offers  great  opportunities  to  young  men. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  portions  of  the  United 
States  were  originally  forested  ?  2.  Why  were  there  no  forests 
in  the  other  parts?  3.  How  have  the  forest  trees  been  used? 
4.  How  have  the  timber  resources  been  wasted  ?  5.  Where  are 
the  chief  lumber-producing  regions  to-day  ? 

6.  How  may  we  plan  to  have  a  sufficient  permanent  supply 
of  lumber  in  this  country  ?  7.  Why  is  it  very  important  that  we 
maintain  forests  in  the  United  States  ?  8.  State  some  of  the 
problems  that  scientific  forestry  may  solve. 

Home  work.  1.  Find  out  the  retail  price  of  one  thousand  feet 
of  pine  lumber.  2.  What  kinds  of  trees  grow  in  your  home 
region  ?    3.  How  are  wood  substitutes  used  in  your  home  city  ? 


BILLIONS  OF   BOARD  FEET 

) 

L 

2 

i 

i 

S                         6 

2  Douglas  fir 

3  White  pine 

4  Oak 

5  Hemlock 

6  Western  yellow  pine 

7  Spruce 

8  Maple 

9  Gum 

10  Cypress 

11  Redwood 

12  Chestnut 

13  Birch 

14  Larch 

15  Beech 

16  Yellow  poplar 

17  Cedar 

18  Tupelo 

19  White  fir 

20  Basswood 

21  Elm 

■ 

22  Cottonwood 

23  Ash 

24  Sugar  pine 

25  Hickory 

■ 

26  Walnut 

■ 

All  others 

- 

L".  S-  Forest  Service 

Fig.  560.  This  table  shows  the  order  of  importance  of  the  different  kinds  of  wood  in  the  lumber 
production  of  the  United  States.  Which  of  these  kinds  of  trees  are  hard  woods  ?  Which  are  soft 
woods  ?  Which  of  the  two,  hard  woods  or  soft  woods,  furnish  the  larger  part  of  our  lumber  supply  ? 
Great  quantities  of  soft  wood  are  used  to  make  wood  pulp  for  the  paper-manufacturing  industry 


286 


MINERAL  RESOURCES 


)  Press  Illustrating  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  861.  These  two  miners  are  using  an  electric  coal-mining  machine.  This 
machine  makes  a  deep  cut  under  the  layers  of  coal,  which  loosens  them 
from  the  mass  beneath.  Then  a  small  charge  of  powder  is  set  off,  causing 
the  coal  to  fall.  By  using  this  machine  two  men  can  do  the  work  of  twelve 

MINERAL  RESOURCES 
Fuels 

The  chief  natural  fuels  other  than  wood  are  coal,  oil, 
and  gas.  These  resources  are  stored  in  the  ground. 
They  were  a  very  long  time  in  forming,  and  when  used 
they  are  gone  forever. 

The  origin  of  coal.  Coal  is  made  of  vegetable  matter. 
Wherever  we  find  a  layer  of  coal  to-day,  we  may  imagine 
there  was  once  a  swamp  forest.  There  vegetable  mate- 
rial accumulated  for  thousands  of  years.  The  water  of 
the  swamp  kept  the  air  from  reaching  the  plant  mate- 
rial and  thus  prevented  decay.  Later  that  region  sank 
and  the  sea  came  in  and  flooded  the  area. 

Sands,  gravels,  and  clays  were  washed  into  that  sea 
and  in  settling  to  the  bottom  buried  the  vegetable 
matter.  More  and  more  sediments  were  deposited  until 
the  vegetable  matter  was  under  a  great  weight.  In 
many  places  the  cover  was  hundreds  of  feet  thick,  and 
in  some  places  it  was  thousands  of  feet  thick.  In  time, 
by  compression  and  by  the  loss  of  water  and  gases,  the 
vegetable  matter  was  changed  into  coal.  All  stages  in 
this  process  are  known,  and  samples  that  illustrate  each 
stage  have  been  found,  from  the  peat  in  the  bog  to  the 
coal  as  it  is  mined.  Exhibits  of  these  materials  have 
been  placed  in  the  large  museums. 

In  some  regions,  where  mountains  have  been  made  by 
the  folding  of  rocks,  layers  of  soft  coal  have  been  so  com- 
pressed that  they  were  changed  into  hard  coal.  This  is 
the  explanation  of  the  anthracite  in  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  of  northeastern  Pennsylvania. 

The  supply  of  coal.  The  United  States  is  the  richest 
of  all  the  nations  in  the  world  in  coal.  There  is  more 
coal  in  this  country  than  in  all  of  Europe.  China  is 
probably   our   nearest   rival   in   coal   supply.    We   are 


Press  Illustrating  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  562.  The  next  step  in  the  mining  process  is  to  load  the  coal  on  the  little 
cars  which  are  run  along  the  galleries  and  hoisted  to  the  surface.  On  the 
car  the  miner  hangs  a  metal  check  bearing  his  number.  When  the  car  reaches 
the  surface,  the  coal  is  weighed  and  the  amount  is  credited  to  the  miner 

fortunate  not  only  in  the  immense  supply  but  in  the 
widespread  distribution  of  the  coal  beds  (Fig.  563). 

The  anthracite  of  northeastern  Pennsylvania  is  not 
surpassed  by  any  coal  in  the  world,  and  the  great  Appa- 
lachian soft-coal  field,  which  stretches  from  northern 
Pennsylvania  to  northern  Alabama,  contains  the  finest 
bituminous  coal  lands  in  the  world. 

The  eastern  interior  coal  field  of  Illinois,  Indiana, 
and  Kentucky  is  second  only  to  the  Appalachian  field 
in  the  quality  of  its  soft  coal.  This  field  is  of  very  great 
importance  to  industrial  and  commercial  development 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley  states. 

Coal  beds  underlie  much  of  Iowa  and  extend  southward 
through  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Oklahoma  and  into  Arkan- 
sas. Texas  and  the  Dakotas  contain  extensive  beds  of  coal 
that  are  coming  more  and  more  into  use.  The  Rocky 
Mountains  states  contain  a  large  supply  of  coal,  and  a 
portion  of  the  coal  in  Colorado  is  of  anthracite  grade. 

The  western  plateau  states  and  the  Pacific  coast  states 
are  not  well  supplied  with  coal,  but  the  discovery  of  oil 
in  southern  California  has,  for  the  present  at  least,  fur- 
nished the  western  part  of  our  country  with  an  abun- 
dance of  fuel.  The  chief  coal  fields  in  the  Pacific  coast 
states  are  near  Tacoma.  There  large  quantities  of  coal 
are  mined  each  year,  and  Tacoma  has  become  an  im- 
portant coaling  station  for  vessels.  Many  of  the  coal 
fields  in  the  western  half  of  the  country  are  owned  by 
the  government.  They  may  be  leased  by  individuals, 
or  companies,  that  wish  to  develop  them. 

Alaska  contains  several  coal  fields.  There  are  large 
supplies  of  anthracite  and  bituminous  coals  and  vast 
areas  underlain  with  a  low  grade  of  coal  called  lignite. 
Some  day  Alaskan  coal  will  be  shipped  to  the  western 
states  and  used  in  steamers  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


MINERAL  RESOURCES 


287 


The  use  of  coal.  To-day  most  of  our  locomotives  and 
most  of  the  vessels  at  sea  are  coal-driven.  In  almost  all 
of  our  factories  coal  is  used  to  generate  steam.  Our 
modern  travel,  manufacturing,  and  transportation  of 
goods  would  be  paralyzed  if  we  could  not  use  coal. 
Many  of  our  cities  and  homes  would  be  dark  at  night, 
and  when  winter  came  there  would  certainly  be  great 
suffering  in  the  world  if  we  were  suddenly  deprived 
of  coal. 

The  people  of  the  United  States  use  more  coal  than 
any  other  people  in  the  world.  It  is  estimated  that  we 
now  consume,  on  the  average,  over  five  tons  per  person 
each  year.  The  rate  at  which  the  amount  used  has  in- 
creased is  amazing ;  and  unless  that  rate  is  lowered,  our 
vast  supplies  of  coal  will 
not  last  but  a  few  hun- 
dred years.  But  that  rate 
must  not  go  on  increasing 
so  rapidly.  By  properly 
conserving  our  coal  it  may 
be  made  to  last  for  thou- 
sands of  years. 

In  spite  of  the  immense 
production  of  coal  in  the 
U  nited  States,  relatively 
little  is  exported.  Canada 
buys  more  coal  from  us 
than  any  other  country. 
Small  quantities  of  coal 
are  sold  to  Cuba  and  other 
islands  of  the  West  Indies 
and  to  Mexico.  Coal  is 
shipped  from  Norfolk,  Virginia,  to  Tampico  for  use  on 
the  Mexican  railroads  and  at  the  Mexican  mines. 

The  conservation  of  coal.  There  are  various  ways  in 
which  we  can  make  our  supply  of  coal  last  longer. 

1.  Prevent  loss  in  mining.  It  was  estimated  that  in 
the  days  before  we  appreciated  the  importance  of  con- 
serving coal  as  much  was  wasted  as  was  used  each  year. 
That  was  a  tremendous  and  a  disgraceful  loss,  but  it  is 
being  corrected. 

2.  Make  little  bricks,  called  briquettes,  of  coal  dust. 
Tar  may  be  used  to  bind  the  very  fine  coal  and  coal 
dust  together. 

3.  Save  by-products.  In  making  coke  it  is  possible 
by  modern  methods  to  save  the  gases  that  are  driven 
off  from  the  coal  and  to  secure  ammonia  used  in  certain 
fertilizers,  tar  from  which  dyes  are  made,  and  hundreds 
of  other  useful  products. 

4.  Improve  methods  of  burning  coal  so  as  to  secure 
more  heat  from  it.  This  calls  for  the  invention  of  new 
kinds  of  engines,  new  furnaces,  and  new  stoves. 


Fine  ruling    =  Known  coal  fields 
Coarse  ruling.  Doubtful  coal  fields 
|:'.v-'::;|  —Coal  under  deep  cover 


Courtesy  of  Elizabeth  F.  Fisher 

Fig.  563.  This  map  shows  the  location  of  the  coal  beds  in  the  United  States. 
What  states  have  large  supplies  of  coal  ?  What  states  have  no  coal  ?  How 
does  the  coal  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  differ  from  the  coal  in  the  Appalachian 
Highlands  ?  The  coal  under  deep  cover  is  buried  too  far  in  the  earth  to  be 
mined  with  profit 


5.  Substitutes  for  coal  may  be  used.  Oil,  gas,  and 
water-power  are  the  best  substitutes  we  now  have. 

6.  Each  person  who  uses  coal  can  be  careful  and  thus 
avoid  waste.  It  is  estimated  that  if  each  person  in  the 
United  States  who  used  coal  should  save  one  shovelful 
of  coal  out  of  ten,  about  50,000,000  tons  could  be  saved 
each  year. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  are  the  three  leading 
mineral  fuels  ?  2.  Explain  briefly  how  coal  is  made.  3.  Why  are 
some  coals  made  harder  than  others  ?  4.  Where  are  the  best  coal 
fields  in  the  United  States  ?  5.  Which  of  all  the  nations  in  the 
world  has  the  most  coal  ? 

6.  Describe  some  of  the  things  that  would  happen  if  we  were 
suddenly  prevented  from  using  coal.  7.  What  are  the  best  sub- 
stitutes for  coal  ?    8.  How  may  our  supply  of  coal  be  conserved  ? 

9.  Why  should  the  coal  be 
conserved  ? 

Home  work.  Find  out  from 
what  fields  most  of  the  coal 
used  in  your  home  town  comes. 

Natural  oils  and  gases. 
The  origin  of  the  natural 
oils  and  gases  in  the  ground 
is  somewhat  of  a  mystery. 
We  do  not  know  just  how 
they  were  made,  but  most 
scientists  agree  that  they 
must  have  come  from  the 
vegetable  or  animal  matter 
that  was  buried  in  rocks. 
It  is  certain  that  large 
numbers  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals were  buried  while  the 
sediments  that  make  the  sandstones,  shales,  and  other 
rocks  were  being  deposited  in  lakes  or  inland  seas.  It  is 
certain  that  the  plants  and  the  bodies  of  animals  con- 
tain the  elements  necessary  to  form  our  natural  oils  and 
gases.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  discover  just  how  the 
change  took  place. 

We  are  certain  that  the  process  of  making  the  oils  and 
gases  went  on  deep  in  the  earth  and  where  the  pressure 
was  great  and  the  temperature  higher  than  near  the 
surface.  These  changes  must  have  taken  a  very  long 
time,  probably  millions  of  years.  More  oil  and  gas  may 
be  forming  to-day,  but  we  are  using  up  these  valuable 
resources  many  times  faster  than  they  are  being  formed. 
They  are  resources  that  can  be  used  but  once. 

The  natural  oils  and  gases  are  commonly  found  to- 
gether in  the  ground,  and  with  them  there  is  often  some 
salt  water.  The  gas  is  the  lightest  and  is  nearest  the 
surface  of  the  earth  ;  then  comes  the  oil ;  and  below  the 
oil  is  the  salt  water.  When  a  well  is  driven,  gas  com- 
monly comes  off  first,  then  oil,  and  later  the  salt  water. 


288 


MINERAL  RESOURCES 


Distribution  of  oils  and  gases.    The  map  shown  in  Conservation  of  oil.    As  in  the  use  of  wood  and  coal, 

Fig.  564  gives  the  location  of  the  chief  fields  where  the  we  have  been  very  extravagant  in  the  use  of  natural  oil. 

natural  oils  and  gases  are  obtained.    The  first  discoveries  Those  engaged  in  producing  the  oil  have  been  guilty 

were  made  in  western  Pennsylvania.    That  field  extends  of  wasting  large  quantities  by  letting  it  run  away  or 

southward  into  West  Virginia  and  northward  into  New  allowing  free  evaporation  from  open  storage  tanks.  This 

York.    The  Ohio-Indiana  field  has  been  a  great  producer  should  be  corrected  (Fig.  565). 

of  these  valuable  fuels,  and  Kentucky  and  southern  The  lighter  oils  can  be  taken  from  the  crude  petroleum 


Illinois  have  also  yielded  large  quantities  of  oil  and  gas. 
Louisiana  has  rich  supplies  of  these  fuels,  California  has 
produced  and  is  producing  large  quantities,  and  the  late 
development  in  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas  has  been 


before  it  is  used  as  a  fuel.  That  will  save  very  valuable 
products.  Where  water-power  is  abundant,  electricity 
could  be  generated  and  used  in  many  ways  instead  of  oil. 
Individuals  can  always  be  careful  not  to  waste  oil,  gaso- 


marvelous.    Successful  oil  wells  are  located  in  Wyoming     line,  or  any  of  the  products  that  come  from  petroleum, 
and  Colorado,  and  additional  discoveries  are  reported         Use  and  conservation  of  gas.    Natural  gas  is  the  best 
every  few  years  from  many  different  parts  of  the  country,     of  all  the  fuels.    It  is  used  near  the  producing  fields 


A  remarkable  experience 
in  this  country  has  been 
the  discovery  of  new  fields 
as  fast  as  the  old  fields 
were  nearing  exhaustion. 
It  stands  to  reason  that 
this  cannot  go  on  forever, 
and  therefore  we  must 
face  the  problem  of  con- 
serving our  supplies  of 
oils  and  gases. 

Uses  of  oil.  Natural  oil, 
or  petroleum  in  a  crude 
state  (that  is,  just  as  it 
comes  from  the  ground), 
is  used  as  a  fuel.  In  some 
portions  of  the  country 
where  coal  is  not  abundant 
oil-burning  locomotives  are  used.  Many  ocean  liners 
and  ships  of  war  are  equipped  with  oil-burning  engines. 

Most  of  our  lubricating  oils  come  from  petroleum. 
They  are  absolutely  essential  in  the  running  of  ma- 
chinery, and  therefore  our  manufacturing  industries 
are  dependent  upon  this  natural  resource. 

Kerosene  is  obtained  from  petroleum,  and  it  is  com- 
monly used  throughout  the  world  for  light.  American 
kerosene  is  shipped  to  almost  every  country.  It  reaches 
Greenland  and  New  Zealand  and  goes  far  into  the  in- 
terior of  China,  to  places  where  few,  if  any,  white  men 
have  ever  gone.  It  is  distributed  more  widely  than  any 
other  product  from  America. 

Gasoline,  which  is  now  used  to  drive  automobiles, 
motor  trucks,  motor  boats,  submarines,  and  aeroplanes, 
is  obtained  from  natural  oil. 

Naphtha,  benzine,  paraffin,  and  vaseline  are  among  the 
many  other  useful  by-products  obtained  from  petroleum. 
A  large  part  of  the  paraffin  that  is  obtained  from 
petroleum  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  common  candles. 


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tuurusj  ul  hhi.l>i-[h  P.  f  niter 

Fig.  564.  This  map  shows  the  location  of  the  oil  and  gas  fields  in  the  United 
States.  What  natural  regions  produce  the  largest  quantities  of  oil  and  gas  ? 
Notice  the  pipe  lines.  Along  these  lines  pipes  are  laid  underground  through 
which  the  oil  is  sent  from  the  fields  to  the  places  where  it  is  used  or  refined 


in  western  Pennsylvania, 
southern  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Kansas,  Texas,  and  Illinois. 
Many  people  use  it  for 
cooking  and  for  lighting 
and  heating  their  homes. 
Although  natural  gas  is 
so  valuable  a  fuel  and  so 
limited  in  amount,  no  other 
natural  resource  has  been 
so  recklessly  wasted  by  the 
American  people.  In  many 
cases,  when  wells  were 
driven  for  oil,  large  quan- 
tities of  gas  came  pouring 
out  into  the  air,  and  no 
effort  was  made  to  prevent 
this  or  to  save  the  gas. 
Sometimes  the  gas  was  lighted  and  burned  for  years  as 
great  torches.  This  was  a  most  inexcusable  waste.  These 
great  torches  burned  day  and  night,  and  it  seems  strange 
that  they  did  not  awaken  the  American  people  to  the 
wisdom  of  conservation.  It  has  been  stated  by  one  state 
officer  in  this  country  that  the  amount  of  natural  gas  lost 
in  his  state  during  twenty  years  was  equivalent  to 
throwing  away  forty-five  tons  of  coal  every  minute. 
At  best  the  supply  of  natural  gas  will  not  last  many 
years.  It  is  nearly  exhausted  in  many  of  the  fields  now, 
and  every  means  should  be  taken  to  conserve  what  is  left. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  is  probably  the  origin 
of  the  natural  oils  and  gases  ?  2.  Where  are  the  chief  oil  and 
gas  fields  in  the  United  States  ?  3.  What  products  that  come  from 
petroleum  have  you  seen  ?    What  are  they  used  for  ? 

4.  In  what  ways  is  petroleum  transported  from  the  wells  to 
the  refineries  ?  5.  How  may  the  supply  of  natural  oil  be  con- 
served ?  6.  Of  all  the  natural  fuels,  which  is  the  best?  Why? 
7.  How  are  natural  gases  lost  or  wasted  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Find  out  how  a  deep  oil  well  is  made.  2.  What 
oil  field  is  nearest  your  home  ? 


MINERAL  RESOURCES 


289 


Fig.  565.   This  view  shows  a  number  of  petroleum-storage  tanks.   They  are 

located  in  a  field  not  far  from  the  wells  where  the  oil  is  produced.   One  of 

the  tanks  has  been  struck  by  lightning,  and  the  oil  is  burning.   This  is  one 

of  the  ways  in  which  petroleum  is  wasted 

Iron 

Iron  is  the  most  important  of  all  our  metal  resources. 
It  is  not  the  highest-priced  metal,  but  because  of  its 
abundance  and  great  usefulness  it  ranks  first  in  im- 
portance. There  is  a  little  iron  in  most  soils,  in  most 
rocks,  and  in  most  of  the  waters  that  flow  through  the 
ground.  In  many  places  near  the  surface  of  the  earth 
there  are  large  deposits  of  iron,  and  where  that  iron  can 
be  mined  at  a  profit  it  is  called  iron  ore  (Fig.  566). 

Distribution  of  iron  ore  in  the  United  States.  In  this 
country  the  region  that  produces  by  far  the  greatest 
amount  of  iron  ore  each  year  is  near  Lake  Superior. 
There  the  ore  is  of  high  grade  and  can  be  mined  very 
easily.  The  surface  covering  of  glacial  soils  and  subsoils 
is  removed,  and  the  ore  is  then  taken  out  by  steam 
shovels,  just  as  great  excavations  are  made.  This  rich 
ore  is  loaded  on  lake  steamers  that  take  it  to  the  leading 
industrial  centers  on  the  Great  Lakes  (Figs.  567,  568). 
Much  of  it  is  taken  to  Chicago,  Gary,  Detroit,  Cleveland, 
Erie,  and  Buffalo.  Large  quantities  are  reshipped  from 
Lake  Erie  ports  to  the  Pittsburgh  district  and  to  points 
farther  east. 

It  is  cheaper  to  ship  the  ore  to  the  coal  than  to  send 
the  coal  to  the  place  where  the  ore  is  mined,  for  it 
takes  nearly  two  tons  of  coal  to  make  a  ton  of  iron. 
Furthermore,  the  manufacturing  centers  that  are  near 
the  coal  fields  are  leading  markets  for  the  iron  when  it 
has  been  made. 

The  Appalachian  iron  fields  are  next  to  the  Lake  Supe- 
rior district  in  importance.  There  the  iron  ores  have  been 
found  in  several  localities  from  northern  Pennsylvania 


to  northern  Alabama.  The  iron  and  steel  industries 
were  first  established  in  Pittsburgh,  and  as  the  better 
ores  in  that  district  were  exhausted  Lake  Superior  ores 
were  imported.  The  Pittsburgh  district  is  still  the  leader 
in  the  production  of  iron  and  steel,  but  the  cities  on  the 
Great  Lakes  have  been  rapidly  increasing  their  produc- 
tion of  these  articles.  At  Gary  in  northern  Indiana  the 
United  States  Steel  Corporation  has  constructed  the 
largest  steel  plant  in  the  world. 

In  the  Birmingham  district  of  northern  Alabama 
iron  ore,  coal,  and  limestone  are  by  good  fortune  found 
close  together.  The  coal  and  limestone  are  both  used  in 
making  iron.  Here  there  are  no  heavy  transportation  ex- 
penses, and  the  Birmingham  region  is  becoming  a  strong 
rival  of  the  region  about  Pittsburgh.  It  is  the  center  of 
the  iron  and  steel  industries  of  the  South,  and  it  is 
certain  to  increase  in  importance  as  manufacturing  is 
promoted  in  the  Southern  states. 

Iron  ore  is  mined  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains  of 
New  York  and  in  a  few  places  in  the  western  part  of 
the  United  States  (Fig.  566). 

Importation  of  iron  ore.  Although  we  have  great 
stores  of  iron  ore  in  this  country,  we  import  large  quan- 
tities of  iron  ore  each  year.  The  mixing  of  certain  ores 
has  been  found  to  produce  qualities  in  steel  that  are 
suitable  for  special  purposes.  Foreign  ores  are  now  being 
brought  to  our  eastern  ports,  and  especially  to  Baltimore 
and  Philadelphia.  Most  of  the  imported  iron  ore  comes 
from  Cuba,  and  some  comes  from  Newfoundland,  Sweden, 
Spain,  and  the  island  of  Elba.  We  are  expecting  iron 
ores  from  Chile,  for  Americans  have  recently  purchased 
ore  properties  in  that  country.  The  Brazilian  Highlands 
contain  remarkably  rich  deposits  of  iron.  American  capi- 
tal has  been  invested  in  these  deposits,  and  some  day  iron 
ore  may  be  shipped  from  Brazil  to  the  United  States. 


Fig.  566.   This  map  shows  the  distribution  of  the  chief  deposits  of  iron  and 

copper  in  the  United  States.  Where  are  most  of  the  iron  deposits  ?  Where  are 

most  of  the  copper  deposits  ?   The  dot  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior 

and  the  one  in  Tennessee  represent  very  important  supplies  of  copper 


290 


MINERAL  RESOURCES 


Fig.  567.  The  boat  in  this  view  is  a  Great  Lakes  freighter  which  has  come  from  Lake  Superior  to 
Cleveland  loaded  with  iron  ore.   It  has  anchored  at  one  of  the  railroad  wharves,  where  the  ore  is 
being  unloaded  and  transferred  to  freight  cars  by  means  of  a  number  of  powerful  unloaders  oper- 
ated by  electricity.   In  what  cities  may  this  iron  ore  be  used  ? 


Iron  in  world  trade.  The  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  are  the  two  leading  nations  in  the  iron  and 
steel  industries.  They  now  produce  more  than  half  of 
the  world's  supply  of  iron.  France,  Germany,  Belgium, 
and  Russia  come  next  in  importance. 

In  addition  to  the  iron  ore  these  industries  require 
many  laborers,  much  capital,  good  transportation  facil- 
ities, and  a  large  market.  Deposits  of  iron  are  widely 
distributed  throughout  the  world  (see  Appendix,  p.  v), 
but  only  a  few  countries  can  yet  develop  the  iron 
and  steel  industries  on  a  large  scale. 

Rails,  bridges,  girders  and  pipes,  plows,  mowers, 
reapers,  farm  tractors,  windmills,  and  hundreds  of  other 
American  articles  made  wholly  or  in  part  of  iron  or  steel 
are  in  use  in  the  most  distant  countries  of  the  world. 
American  rails  are  used  on  the  railroad  to  the  African 
lakes  in  Uganda ;  they  are  also  used  in  Manchuria,  in 
Japan,  and  on  the  roads  that  cross  the  Andes  Mountains 
in  South  America.    The  trade  in  iron  is  world-wide. 

The  better  grades  of  iron  ore  will  be  used  first,  and 
then  the  vast  supplies  of  lower-grade  deposits  of  iron 
will  be  needed.  The  amount  of  iron  in  the  world  is 
very  great,  and  as  yet  but  a  small  fraction  of  the  total 
supply  has  been  used. 

Conservation  of  iron.  The  problem  of  conserving  iron 
is  quite  different  from  that  of  conserving  coal,  oil,  or 
gas.  Iron  may  be  used  several  times,  but  coal,  oil,  and 
gas  can  be  used  but  once.  The  iron-mining  companies 
realize  the  value  of  the  ore,  and  therefore  are  not  likely 
to  waste  it  in  mining.  The  conserving  of  our  iron  will 
be  chiefly  accomplished  by  saving  that  which  has  been 
produced.  Our  chief  problem  is  to  prevent  the  rusting 
of  iron  or  steel.  This  may  be  done  by  using  paint  or  a 
coating  of  zinc  or  tin.  Iron  coated  with  zinc  we  call 
galvanized  iron,  and  iron  coated  with  tin  is  called  tin 
plate.    Sometimes  expensive  pieces  of  iron  are  covered 


with  enamel  or  coated  with  lacquers 
or  japans.  The  steel  frames  of  large 
city  buildings  are  protected  with  stone, 
brick,  or  terra  cotta. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Where 
are  the  chief  iron-mining  regions  in  the  United 
States  ?  2.  Name  five  important  industrial 
centers  where  iron  and  steel  are  made.  3.  Why 
do  we  import  iron  ores  ?  4.  Where  do  our 
imported  iron  ores  come  from  ?  5.  What 
nations  lead  in  the  iron  and  steel  industries  ? 

6.  Why  do  so  few  small  nations  develop 
iron  and  steel  industries  ?  7.  What  are  some 
of  the  American  iron  and  steel  products  that 
are  sent  to  distant  parts  of  the  world  ?  8.  How 
does  the  problem  of  conserving  iron  differ 
from  that  of  conserving  coal  ? 

1.  Find  out  whylimestone  and  coal  are  placed  in 

2.  Find  out  all  you 


Home  work 

the  furnace  with  the  iron  ore  in  making  iron 

can  about  what  actually  takes  place  when  iron  rusts 


Copper 

Our  copper  comes  chiefly  from  Arizona,  Montana, 
Michigan,  Utah,  New  Mexico,  and  Nevada.  The  United 
States  produces  far  more  copper  than  any  other  nation. 
Arizona  and  Montana  produce  about  one  third  of  the 
world's  copper  each  year.  Arizona  alone  furnishes  over 
40  per  cent  of  the  yearly  output  of  the  United  States. 

In  the  Michigan  mines,  which  are  located  on  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  the  ore  is  in  the  form  of 
pure  metallic  copper.  This  is  very  uncommon,  for  copper 
is  usually  found  with  other  minerals. 

The  mines  in  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan  were 
for  a  long  time  the  greatest  producers  of  copper  in  the 


Fig.  568.  This  is  a  view  in  the  hold  of  a  freighter  which  is  being  loaded 
with  iron  ore.  Notice  the  two  great  buckets  which  have  just  opened  and 
dropped  their  contents  into  the  ship.  These  buckets  are  part  of  the  machin- 
ery for  loading  and  unloading  which  you  can  see  at  a  distance  in  Fig.  567 


MINERAL  RESOURCES 


291 


1 

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Fig.  569.  This  large  copper  and  zinc  smelter  is  located  at  Great  Falls, 
Montana.  At  the  left  is  the  Missouri  River,  which  has  just  come  from  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  has  started  on  its  long  journey  across  the  plains  to 
join  the  Mississippi.   The  water-power  at  the  falls  is  utilized  to  generate 

world.  Some  of  these  mines  are  a  mile  deep,  and  the 
copper  is  not  yet  exhausted.  After  a  while  the  mines  at 
Butte,  Montana,  surpassed  the  Michigan  mines  in  the 
production  of  copper,  and  then  the  mines  in  Arizona 
took  first  place.  There  are  rich  supplies  of  copper  in 
Alaska,  and  several  million  dollars'  worth  of  copper  has 
already  been  sent  from  Alaska  to  the  Western  states. 

In  the  Rocky  Mountain  and  Plateau  states  the  copper 
is  commonly  found  with  silver,  lead,  and  zinc,  and 
sometimes  with  gold.  Many  of  the  copper  ores  contain 
sulphur.  When  the  different  metals  occur  together  or 
the  ore  contains  other  elements,  such  as  sulphur,  it  is 
necessary  to  use  heat  and  to  invent  mechanical  and 
sometimes  chemical  ways  for  securing  the  pure  metals. 
Many  ores  are  first  roasted  to  drive  off  impurities.  Then 
they  are  put  into  great  furnaces  and  melted,  and  the 
metals  are  drawn  off  and  allowed  to  cool  in  small  molds. 
Some  ores  are  crushed  to  a  powder  and  then  washed  to 
separate  the  lighter  and  useless  rock  material  from  the 
metals  before  thev  are  roasted  and  sent  to  the  furnaces 


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Fig.  870.  This  is  a  view  in  the  manufacturing  plant  of  a  great  electric  com- 
pany at  Schenectady,  New  York.  There  are  many  other  such  electrical  plants 
in  different  parts  of  our  country,  where  all  kinds  of  machinery  for  generat- 
ing and  transmitting  electricity  are  made.  The  use  of  copper  wire  in  trans- 
mitting electricity  has  made  possible  the  widespread  use  of  electric  power 


electricity  that  is  used  in  many  parts  of  this  great  plant.  To  this  smelter 
are  brought  train-loads  of  ores  that  have  been  mined  in  the  mountains.  Some 
of  these  ores  are  crushed  and  washed,  and  some  must  be  roasted.  The  large 
chimney  located  on  the  hilltop  is  connected  with  the  main  part  of  the  plant 

to  be  melted.  The  sulphur  gas  driven  off  from  the 
copper  ores  is  used  in  making  sulphuric  acid  (Fig.  569). 

Finally,  when  the  different  metals  have  been  separated 
and  pure  metallic  copper  has  been  secured,  it  is  shipped 
to  industrial  centers  in  this  country  or  in  foreign  lands. 

Uses  of  copper.  Copper  ranks  next  to  iron  in  usefulness 
to  man.  It  makes  possible  our  electric  lights,  telephone, 
telegraph,  electric  engines,  and  electric-car  lines,  and  the 
distribution  of  electricity  from  the  power  plants  (Fig.  570). 
Copper  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  boilers,  lamps,  and 
many  other  useful  articles  for  the  home.  Brass  is  made 
by  combining  copper  with  zinc,  and  a  kind  of  bronze 
is  made  by  combining  copper  and  tin. 

Importation  of  copper  ore.  Although  we  mine  more 
copper  in  this  country  each  year  than  is  mined  in  any 
other  country,  we  import  large  quantities  of  copper  ore. 
The  imported  ore  comes  chiefly  from  Labrador,  New- 
foundland, Spain,  Italy,  Peru,  Cuba,  and  Canada.  It  is 
brought  to  this  country  largely  because  of  the  coal  avail- 
able, which  is  used  in  extracting  the  metal  from  the  ore. 
The  cost  of  importing  the  ore  is  usually  rather  small, 
for  many  of  the  vessels  returning  from  those  countries 
find  it  difficult  to  secure  full  cargoes,  and  therefore  give 
a  low  rate  on  the  copper  ore. 

Conservation  of  copper.  This  metal  is  so  valuable  that 
few  if  any  people  need  to  be  told  to  save  it.  The  miners 
are  careful  of  the  ore,  and  those  who  purchase  the  pure 
metal  try  to  prevent  any  waste.  The  amount  of  copper 
in  the  world  is  limited,  and  the  production  cannot,  there- 
fore, continue  on  the  same  basis  indefinitely.  It  is  per- 
fectly reasonable  to  expect  that  the  amount  produced  in 
the  world  each  year  will  decrease.  Our  chief  duty  is  to 
prevent  the  destruction  of  the  copper  already  produced. 
It  can  be  used  over  and  over  again.  The  world  will  not 
need  to  go  on  producing  such  large  quantities  as  it  now 
produces  if  the  copper  already  in  use  is  kept  in  use. 

New  methods  of  mining,  new  methods  of  extracting 
the  metals  from  the  ores  to  make  profitable  the  use 
of  lower-grade  ores,  and  the  discoveiy  of  more  copper 
ore  may  help  out  the  supply  of  copper  for  the  future. 


292 


MINERAL  RESOURCES 


Fig.  571.  This  map  shows  the  distribution  of  the  chief  deposits  of  lead  and 
zinc  in  the  United  States.  What  states  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  con- 
tain important  deposits  of  lead  or  zinc?    What  minerals  are  found  in 
southwestern  South  Dakota  ?  See  Figs.  566  and  575 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  states  produce  large 
quantities  of  copper?  2.  In  what  state  is  pure  metallic  copper 
found  in  large  quantities  in  the  ground  ?  3.  Which  one  of  our 
distant  possessions  contains,  and  furnishes  each  year,  large  sup- 
plies of  copper  ?  4.  Where  do  we  rank  with  the  other  nations  of 
the  world  in  the  production  of  this  metal  ?  5.  Name  all  the 
ways  you  can  in  which  copper  is  used.  6.  Why  is  copper  ore  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  ?  7.  From  what  countries  does  it 
come  ?  8.  Discuss  the  problem  of  the  conservation  of  copper. 
9.  Where  may  we  expect  new  discoveries  of  copper  ore  to  be  made 
in  the  United  States  ?    See  Fig.  566. 

Lead  and  Zinc 

Lead  and  zinc  are  also  very  useful  and  therefore  very- 
valuable  metals.  They  are  found  deep  in  the  earth  in 
mineral  veins  and  very  commonly  occur  together.  In 
places  these  minerals  form  beautiful  crystal  linings  to 
small  cavities  in  the  rocks.  In  other  places  they  fill 
cracks,  or  fissures.  Sometimes  the  fissure  becomes  so 
narrow  and  the  supply  of  ore  so  small  that  the  miners 
barely  get  enough  to  pay  them  for  their  work.  Then, 
as  they  dig  on  through  the  rocks,  the  crack,  or  fissure, 
in  which  the  ores  are  found  may  become  larger,  and  the 
miners  may  find,  deep  under  the  ground,  large  supplies 
of  these  valuable  minerals. 

The  ores  of  lead  and  zinc  usually  contain  sulphur,  and 
that  makes  it  necessary  to  roast  them  so  as  to  drive  off 
the  sulphur.  The  sulphur  gas  is  captured  and  used  in 
making  sulphuric  acid. 

Lead  and  zinc  deposits  have  been  discovered  in  many 
of  the  states.  Missouri,  Idaho,  Utah,  and  Colorado  pro- 
duce large  quantities  of  lead,  and  Missouri,  Montana, 
New  Jersey,  and  Colorado  (in  the  order  given)  lead  in 
the  production  of  zinc.  Missouri  produces  much  more 
lead  and  zinc  than  any  other  state.  Southwestern  Mis- 
souri, northwestern  Arkansas,  and  northeastern  Okla- 
homa form  one  of  the  chief  producing  areas  in  this 


country.  There  is  another  lead  and  zinc  mining  district 
in  southwestern  Wisconsin  and  northwestern  Illinois 
(Fig.  571). 

In  the  Rocky  Mountain  states  the  lead  and  zinc  occur 
with  ores  of  copper,  silver,  and  gold. 

Uses  and  conservation  of  lead.  More  than  half  the 
lead  produced  in  the  United  States  is  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paint.  It  is  an  excellent  substance  to  have  in 
paint,  but  satisfactory  substitutes  should  be  found,  and 
lead  should  be  used  in  ways  that  permit  it  to  be  used 
over  and  over  again  (Fig.  572).  Lead  pipes  are  some- 
times used  in  our  plumbing,  but  iron  pipes  are  now 
more  common.  Type  metal  contains  some  lead,  but  the 
type  may  be  remelted  and  the  metal  used  again. 

Uses  and  conservation  of  zinc.  This  metal  is  most 
commonly  used  to  galvanize  iron.  The  zinc  covering 
prevents  the  air  and  moisture  from  reaching  the  iron 
and  causing  it  to  rust.  In  this  way  zinc  is  helping  in 
the  great  problems  of  conservation.  It  is  helping  to 
preserve  a  more  valuable  metal.  Zinc,  as  was  mentioned 
under  copper,  is  used  in  making  brass,  and  sheets  of  zinc 
are  often  placed  beneath  or  behind  stoves  as  a  protection 
against  fire.    Zinc  is  also  used  in  making  paint. 

The  conservation  of  lead  and  zinc  will  depend  chiefly 
upon  preventing  loss  in  mining,  improving  methods  of 
extracting  the  metals  from  the  ores,  preventing  waste, 
and  finding  substitutes.  Additional  supplies  of  the  ores 
may  from  time  to  time  be  discovered. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Where  are  the  chief  supplies 
of  lead  and  zinc  ore  in  the  United  States  ?  2.  What  articles  have 
you  seen  that  were  made  of  lead  ?  of  zinc  ?  3.  What  ways  can 
you  suggest  for  conserving  the  present  supplies  of  lead  and  zinc  ? 


Fig.  572.    The  men  in  this  picture  are  workers  in  a  mill  where  lead  paints 
are  manufactured.   This  is  the  room  where  the  materials  of  which  the  paint 
is  made  are  ground  and  mixed.   Why  is  it  wasteful  to  use  lead  in  paint- 
making  ?   What  could  be  done  to  prevent  this  waste? 


MINERAL  RESOURCES 


293 


Fig.  573.  Years  ago,  when  men  first  discovered  that  gold  could  be  washed 
from  the  stream  gravels  in  our  Western  states,  they  invented  clumsy  wooden 
machinery  to  help  them  in  their  work.  This  view  shows  one  of  these  early 
machines,  which  was  operated  very  simply  by  the  turning  of  a  wooden  handle 

Gold  and  Silver 

The  ores  of  gold  and  silver  are  usually  found  together. 
They  are  commonly  associated  in  the  ground  with  lead, 
zinc,  and  copper.  Gold  and  silver  are  called  precious 
metals.  They  are  very  valuable,  chiefly  because  of  their 
beauty. 

Most  of  the  gold  produced  in  the  United  States  comes 
from  the  mountain,  or  plateau,  states  in  the  western 
part  of  the  country.  California,  Colorado,  and  Nevada 
each  produce  large  quantities  of  gold.  South  Dakota 
also  ranks  high  in  the  production  of  gold.  The  gold 
mines  in  South  Dakota  are  in  the  Black  Hills,  which 
are  a  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  (Fig.  575). 

Since  1900  Alaska  has  been  producing  large  quanti- 
ties of  gold  each  year.  Much  of  this  gold  is  obtained 
from  stream  gravels,  just  as  it  was  in  the  early  days  of 
most  of  the  gold-mining 
camps  (Figs.  573,  574). 

At  Nome,  Alaska,  millions 
of  dollars'  worth  of  gold 
have  been  taken  from  the 
sands  and  gravels  of  the 
present  beach  and  from  old 
beach  lines  that  the  miners 
have  found  several  miles 
inland. 

The  United  States  does 
not  lead  the  world  in  the 
production  of  gold.  South 
Africa  has  first  place,  and 
United  States  is  second. 

Montana,  Utah,  Idaho, 
Nevada,  and  Arizona  lead 
in  the  production  of  silver, 


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a  Gold 
•  Silver 

Fig.  575.  This  map  shows  the  distribution  of  the  chief  deposits  of  gold  and 
silver  in  the  United  States.  In  which  of  the  natural  regions  of  the  United 
States  are  most  of  these  deposits  located  ?  What  states  are  known  to  con- 
tain gold  ?  What  states  contain  silver  ?  In  what  hills  are  the  gold  and 
silver  deposits  of  South  Dakota  ? 


Fig.  574.  To-day  placer  mining  (the  name  given  to  the  method  of  obtaining 
gold  or  other  ores  by  washing  them  from  stream  gravels)  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  dredges  operated  by  electricity.  The  dredge  in  this  view  is  dig- 
ging out  the  gold-bearing  gravels  from  the  bottom  of  a  river  in  California 

the  first  place  being  held  by  one  or  another  of  these 
states  each  year.  The  United  States  produces  much  more 
silver  than  any  other  nation.  Mexico  ranks  second, 
Canada  is  third,  and  then  comes  Peru.  The  four  nations 
that  lead  in  the  production  of  silver  are  in  the  Western 
Hemisphere.    The  fifth  place  is  held  by  Japan. 

Uses  of  gold.  The  chief  use  of  gold  is  in  making 
coins,  but  large  quantities  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  jewelry  and  ornaments.  Gold  is  a  soft  metal,  and 
often  a  small  amount  of  copper  is  mixed  with  it  when 
they  are  both  in  a  molten  condition.  The  copper  adds 
hardness,  and  the  combined  metals  last  much  longer 
than  would  the  gold  alone. 

Uses  of  silver.  Silver  was  formerly  very  important 
in  making  coins,  but  now  it  is  much  less  used  for  that 
purpose.     Tableware,  jewelry,  and  many  utensils  are 

made  of  silver. 

Conservation  of  gold  and 
silver.  The  conservation  of 
these  precious  metals  can 
best  be  accomplished  by  pre- 
venting waste  in  mining, 
by  improving  methods  of 
extracting  the  metals  from 
the  ores,  and  by  using  the 
metals  over  and  over. 
There  are  good  chances 
that  other  discoveries  of 
valuable  ores  may  be  made 
and  that  scientists  may  in- 
vent cheaper  ways  of  treat- 
ing the  ores,  so  that  in  the 
future  poorer  ores  may  be 
mined  at  a  profit. 


294 


MINERAL  RESOURCES 


Building  Materials  other  than  Wood  most  0f  the  granite  used  in  this  country  (Fig.  577) ;  the 

In  addition  to  the  very  valuable  metals  found  in  the     next  largest  supply  comes  from  the  southern  division  of 
ground,  man  has  discovered  other  substances  that  are     the  Appalachian  Highlands  in  Maryland,  North  Carolina, 


perhaps  equally  useful 

Sands  and  gravels  are  so  widely 
distributed  in  the  United  States  that 
almost  every  community  has  a  local 
supply.  These  materials  are  com- 
monly used  together  in  building 
roads  and  in  making  concrete.  Sand 
is  used  in  making  plaster  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass,  bricks,  sand- 
paper, and  special  roofing  papers. 

When  sand  is  blown  by  the  winds 
against  wood  or  stone,  it  cuts  the 
surfaces  wherever  it  hits.  When 
men  wish  to  remove  paint  from  iron 
or  steel  structures,  sand  is  sometimes 
blown  against  the  metal  surfaces  by 
compressed  air,  making  an  artificial 
sand  blast  which  will  cut  off  the  paint. 
A  sand  blast  is  also  used  in  making 
ground  glass,  and  sands  are  placed  in 
large  artificial  water  filters.  It  takes 
but  a  f  e w  minut  es  of  t  bought  to  realize 
that  these  materials  are  very  valuable. 

Clays  and  certain  soft  rocks  that  can  be  crushed  to 
clays  are  also  widely  distributed  in  this  country.  Almost 
every  community  has  some  clay  available.  The  clays 
have  made  possible  the  manufacture  of  tile,  terra  cotta, 
pottery,  washbowls,  sinks,  doorknobs,  many  different 
kinds  of  bricks,  and  hundreds  of  other  useful  articles. 

Limestone  occurs  in  almost  every 
state  in  the  Union.  It  is  a  building 
stone,  a  source  of  lime,  and,  when 
crushed,  an  excellent  material  to  use 
in  concrete  construction.  Certain 
limestones  are  used  in  making  cement 
(Fig.  576). 

Home  work.  1.  Find  out  how  concrete 
is  made.  2.  What  uses  are  made  of  concrete 
near  your  home  ?  3.  Find  out  how  lime  is 
obtained  from  limestone. 

Sandstones  are  used  in  building, 
and  some  varieties  are  crushed  and 
used  in  making  glass.  Certain  kinds 
of  bricks  are  made  largely  of  sand 
obtained  by  crushing  sandstone. 

Granite  that  is  suitable  for  build- 
ing purposes  and  as  ornamental  stone 
is  found  chiefly  in  the  Appalachian 
Highlands.    New  England  furnishes 


Publishers'  Photo  Service,  in 


Fig.  576.   This  view  shows  a  great  cement  block 
being  lowered  into  place  as  a  part  of  the  founda- 
tion for  a  wharf.    Cement  is  one  of  the  most 
widely  used  building  materials  to-day 


Fig.  577.    This  is  one  of  the  quarries  which  have 

given  New  Hampshire  its  name  of  "  The  Granite 

State."  What  natural  region  furnishes  most  of  the 

supply  of  granite  in  the  United  States  ? 


and  Georgia.    Texas  also  furnishes 
granite. 

Granite  contains  many  beautiful 
crystals  of  different  shapes  and  colors. 
These  crystals  formed  when  the 
rock  was  cooling  from  a  molten 
condition  below  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  Later,  when  the  covering  was 
worn  away,  the  granite  was  left  at 
the  surface  where  man  could  make 
use  of  it. 

Slate  is  quarried  chiefly  in  Maine, 
Vermont,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  Georgia,  and  Virginia. 
Some  slate  is  produced  in  Minnesota, 
California,  and  Arkansas.  It  is  a 
very  useful  stone.  We  may  know  it 
best  as  a  roofing  material,  but  it  is 
used  for  billiard-table  tops,  school 
blackboards,  school  slates,  slate  pen- 
cils, washtubs,  and  many  other  things. 
Marble  is  another  very  useful  stone. 
It  is  used  chiefly  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. Vermont  produces  more  marble  than  any  other 
state,  and  yet  large  quantities  of  marble  are  quarried 
in  Massachusetts,  New  York,  Maryland,  Georgia,  and 
Tennessee.  Colorado  has  a  large  supply  of  marble,  and 
Texas  and  California  produce  some  marble  each  year. 
The  conservation  of  building  materials.  The  formation 
of  our  building  stones  and  of  clays, 
sands,  and  gravels  has  taken  millions 
of  years.  There  appears  to  be  an 
abundance  of  these  materials  in  the 
United  States,  and  yet  it  is  in  the 
true  spirit  of  conservation  to  prevent 
their  waste  or  destruction.  When 
stones  have  been  cut  and  trimmed, 
when  clays  have  been  made  into 
useful  articles,  and  when  sand  and 
gravels  have  been  assorted  and 
made  available  for  man's  use,  they 
represent  a  certain  investment  of 
human  energy.  We  should  remem- 
ber that.it  is  important  to  conserve 
not  only  raw  materials  but  manu- 
factured articles,  and  the  structures 
that  men  have  erected  should  be  con- 
stantly kept  in  repair  in  order  to 
preserve  their  usefulness. 


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WATER 


295 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  Name  at  least  five  natural 
resources  that  are  found  in  the  ground  and  are  not  metals.  2.  In 
what  ways  are  sands  used?  3.  What  industries  are  dependent 
upon  clays? 

4.  What  building  materials  other  than  wood  may  be  used  in 
regions  where  there  are  no  firm,  hard  stones  that  can  be  quarried  ? 
5.  What  stones  are  most  commonly  used  for  ornamental  and 
monumental  purposes  ?  6.  What  are  some  of  the  most  common 
uses  of  cement  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Make  a  list  of  the  kinds  of  articles  in  your 
home  that  are  made  of  clay.  2.  What  building  stones  are  used 
in  your  home  region  ?   Where  do  they  come  from  ? 

WATER 

Water  as  a  natural  resource  suggests  at  once  the 
water  supply  for  our  cities  and  towns;  the  ground 
waters  that  nourish  plants  and  enter  the  common  wells 
in  the  country ;  streams  that  furnish  power  and  streams 
that  may  be  used  for  irrigating  lands ;  navigable  rivers, 
harbors,  lakes,  and  ice. 

Water  is  absolutely  necessary  to  life.  One  who  has 
never  visited  a  dry  region  may  find  difficulty  in  realizing 
the  importance  of  water.  In  arid  climates  the  plants 
may  be  separated  five,  ten,  fifteen  feet,  or  more,  and  yet 
be  crowded.  They  are  as  near  together  as  the  ground 
water  makes  it  possible  for  them  to  live.  Few  if  any 
animals  can  live  in  such  a  region. 

The  trails  in  a  desert  or  even  a  semiarid  region  may 
be  found  coming  together,  and  one  might  expect  that  he 
was  approaching  a  settlement,  but  the  trails  lead  to  a 
water  hole  or  to  a  spring.  That  little  water  hole  or 
spring  becomes  the  stopping  place  for  every  wild  animal 
and  every  man  that  travels  that  way  across  the  desert. 
The  wandering  people  of  the  desert  meet  at  such  water- 
ing places  and  often  camp  there  overnight.  In  regions 
where  water  is  abundant  we  fail  to  realize  what  a  real 
luxury  it  is  to  those  who  live  where  it  is  scarce  (Fig.  578). 


Fig.  578.  This  is  a  view  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  United  States, 
where  there  is  so  little  rainfall  that  the  country  is  a  desert.  Notice  the 
rippled  sand  dunes  which  the  wind  has  piled  up.  Is  there  any  way  in 
which  such  a  region  may  be  made  suitable  for  the  habitation  of  men? 


Fig.  579.  The  building  in  the  foreground  of  this  view  is  an  electric-power 
plant  in  California.  The  water  from  the  stream  is  brought  to  a  point  on 
the  valley  bluff  and  then  allowed  to  run  back  to  the  river  through  the  plant. 
As  it  rushes  through  the  building  its  great  force  is  used  to  make  electricity 

Water-power  was  early  used  in  the  establishment  of 
industries  in  this  country.  In  those  days  the  mills  were 
placed  near  the  water-power  sites,  and  the  water-power 
was  used  directly  to  turn  the  mill  wheels.  This  was 
especially  true  in  New  England.  Then  there  came  a 
demand  for  power  at  a  distance  from  the  water-power 
sites,  and  the  steam  engine,  with  cheap  coal,  was  used. 
Now,  with  the  modern  methods  of  generating  and  trans- 
mitting electricity,  the  water-power  sites  have  again 
become  very  valuable  (Fig.  579).  Those  streams  that 
have  falls  or  rapids  in  their  courses  and  have  a  constant 
or  nearly  constant  flow  throughout  the  year  are  most 
serviceable  in  developing  water-power. 

The  uniform  distribution  of  rainfall  helps  to  make  the 
flow  of  streams  uniform.  Lakes,  swamps,  and  marshes 
serve  as  reservoirs  and  control-  the  supply  of  water  to 
certain  streams.  The  Niagara  River,  with  four  of  the 
Great  Lakes  for  reservoirs,  has  a  remarkably  even  flow 
of  water  throughout  the  year.  If  those  falls  are  ever 
completely  utilized,  they  should  develop  from  5,000,000 
to  7,000,000  horse-power  day  and  night.  Many  of  the 
small  lakes  in  this  country  serve  as  natural  reservoirs 
for  power-producing  streams.  Several  states  have  planned 
artificial  reservoirs  to  help  solve  the  problem  of  a  uniform 
flow  in  the  streams  that  are  used  for  power. 

Glaciers  and  snowfields  serve  as  good  reservoirs  for 
streams.  In  the  Pacific-coast  states,  where  the  rain 
comes  in  the  winter,  the  melting  of  the  glaciers  and 
snowfields  supplies  the  streams  in  the  summer.  In 
those  states  the  streams  descend  through  the  mountain 
canyons  with  many  falls  and  rapids  in  their  courses, 
and  offer  wonderful  opportunities  for  the  development 
of  water-power. 


296 


WATER 


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Central  News  Photo  Serrice,  Inc. 


Fig.  580.  This  is  one  of  the  boats  which  carry  passengers  and  freight  on 
the  Ohio  River.  These  river  boats  are  built  in  such  a  way  that  they  may 
be  used  in  shallow  water  and  thus  can  go  far  up  the  streams.  How  far  is 
the  Ohio  River  navigable  ?  Name  six  navigable  rivers  in  the  United  States 

All  the  states  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  have  an 
abundance  of  water-power.  There  electricity,  generated 
at  water-power  plants,  is  furnished  to  private  homes, 
to  cities  and  towns  for  light  and  power,  to  street  rail- 
ways, and  even  to  one  of  the  great  transcontinental 
railroads.  In  many  places  the  mines  are  lighted  with 
electricity,  and  the  mills  where  the  ores  are  crushed 
are  run  by  electricity. 

Streams  may  be  dammed  in  numerous  places  and 
on  their  way  to  the  sea  may  be  used  over  and  over 
again  to  generate  power.  In  the  western  part  of  the 
country  many  streams  that  are  used  in  several  places  to 
generate  power  are  then  diverted  to  irrigate  dry  lands. 

Where  the  Mississippi  River  is  dammed  at  Keokuk, 
Iowa,  the  power  plant  can  develop  300,000  horse-power. 
Many  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  River  have 
hydroelectric  (water-electric)  plants  located  along  their 
courses.  Hydroelectric  plants  have  now  been  built  in  a 
great  number  of  the  states. 

The  possibilities  of  utilizing  the  waters  in  our  lakes 
and  streams  in  developing  water-power  are  very  great. 
The  tides  may  some  day  be  used  on  a  large  scale  to 
develop  power. 

The  navigable  rivers  in  this  country  directed  the 
migrations  of  settlers  in  the  early  days.  They  were 
the  chief  highways  of  travel  before  railroads  were 
constructed,  and  to-day  they  are  an  important  factor 
in  inland  commerce.  The  Mississippi  River  and  its 
tributaries  have  about  14,000  miles  of  navigable  waters 
(Fig.  580). 

Canals  have  been  constructed,  and  the  rivers  and  har- 
bors have  been  improved.  The  Barge  Canal  of  New  York 
cost  over  one  hundred  million  dollars.  It  connects 
Buffalo  with  Troy  and  has  several  branches  (Fig.  581). 


The  amount  of  raw  material  and  of  manufactured 
goods  to  be  transferred  increases  each  year.  The  rail- 
roads have  more  work  than  they  can  do  promptly,  and 
the  Great  Lakes  and  navigable  streams  should  be  used 
to  help  solve  the  problems  of  transportation  in  the 
United  States  (Fig.  582). 

Conservation  of  water  resources.  In  arid  or  semiarid 
regions  the  conservation  of  the  water  is  simply  the  sav- 
ing of  the  water.  When  a  field  is  being  irrigated,  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  use  too  much  water.  Overirriga- 
tion  is  a  mistake ;  the  land  becomes  swampy  and  may 
be  ruined.  Each  farmer  should  take  no  more  water  from 
the  streams  or  canals  than  his  fields  need.  What  is  left 
in  the  stream  or  canal  when  it  passes  one  farm  may 
then  be  used  by  someone  living  farther  downstream  or 
farther  along  the  route  of  the  irrigation  canal. 

The  canals  should  be  made  as  nearly  as  possible  water- 
tight. Otherwise  the  water  for  irrigation  will  seep 
through  the  walls  or  banks  of  the  canal  and  be  lost, 
or  perhaps  wash  away  the  canal  embankment. 

In  the  regions  where  there  is  an  abundance  of  water 
the  problem  of  conservation  is  largely  how  to  make  the 
most  or  best  use  of  the  water.  The  individual  homes 
and  the  villages,  towns,  and  cities  must  all  be  supplied 
with  water  for  domestic  purposes.  The  great  industrial 
plants,  the  fire  departments,  and  the  street-cleaning 
departments  need  large  supplies  of  water. 

Where  power  can  be  developed  from  falling  water  it 
is  true  conservation  to  use  that  power.  That  means  the 
saving  of  coal,  oil,  gas,  or  wood.  Unless  we  use  the 
water-power,  we  lose  it.  In  this  case  the  best  conser- 
vation means  the  most  complete  use  of  a  natural  resource. 


Photograph  hj  Gordon  P.  UtN 


Fig.  581.   One  of  the  most  important  inland  waterways  in  the  United  States 

is  the  Barge  Canal  across  the  state  of  New  York.  This  view  shows  one  of  the 

locks  in  the  canal.    What  lake  and  what  river  are  connected  by  this  canal  ? 

What  cities  are  at  its  eastern  and  western  ends  ? 


FISHERIES 


297 


Fig.  582.  Many  of  the  passenger  vessels  in  use  on  the  Great  Lakes  are  as 
large  as  ocean  liners.  This  one  runs  between  Buffalo  and  Cleveland.  The 
Great  Lakes  form  a  wonderful  waterway  linking  the  agricultural  West 
with  the  industrial  East.   What  are  the  chief  ports  on  the  Great  Lakes  ? 

In  Europe  water-power  is  often  spoken  of  as  "  white 
coal,"  and  in  many  places  it  has  nearly  taken  the  place 
of  black  coal.  We  may  look  forward  to  a  greater  and 
greater  use  of  the  water-power  in  the  United  States  for 
generating  electricity. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What  is  the  source  of  the 
water  that  falls  on  the  land  ?  2.  Some  of  the  rainwater  runs  off 
in  streams  and  some  sinks  into  the  ground.  What  becomes  of  the 
rest  ?  3.  What  are  the  chief  uses  of  water  ?  4.  In  what  ways  is 
water-power  used  ? 

5.  How  are  lakes  helpful  in  the  development  of  water-power  ? 
6.  What  parts  of  this  country  are  especially  fortunate  in  oppor- 
tunities for  developing  water-power  ?  7.  Why  should  our  inland 
navigable  waterways  be  improved  ?  8.  Of  what  value  are  lakes 
except  as  they  serve  as  reservoirs?  9.  Discuss  the  problem  of 
the  conservation  of  our  water  resources. 

Home  work.  1.  What  is  the  source  of  drinking  water  in  your 
home  region  ?  2.  Find  out  what  an  artesian  well  is.  3.  Is  electricity 
furnished  to  farming  districts  in  this  country  ?  Where  ? 

FISHERIES 

The  best  fishing  region  near  the  United  States  is  off 
the  Atlantic  coast  from  Cape  Hatteras  to  Newfound- 
land. There  the  waters  are  shallow  and  cool.  The 
Labrador  current  brings  the  cold  water  southward 
along  our  northeastern  coast  and  helps  to  make  that 
one  of  the  three  best  fishing  regions  in  the  world.  The 
shallow  waters  northwest  of  Europe  and  those  northeast 
of  Asia  are  the  other  two  regions. 

The  cod,  haddock,  halibut,  mackerel,  and  herring  are 
caught  in  our  northeastern  fishing  region.  The  cod  is 
the  most  valuable  of  all  our  fish  supplies.  A  large 
amount  is  sold  to  be  eaten  fresh,  but  a  much  larger 
quantity  is  salted.  There  are  many  factories  in  New 
England,  especially  in  Massachusetts,  where  cod  are 
cleaned,  split,   dried,  and  salted.    Mackerel  are  eaten 


fresh,  and  great  quantities  are  salted  or  canned.  The 
larger  herring  are  smoked  or  salted,  and  the  smaller 
ones  are  canned  and  sold  as  sardines. 

South  of  Cape  Hatteras  there  is  little  fishing,  for  the 
Gulf  Stream  warms  the  waters  near  our  Atlantic  coast, 
and  the  fish  that  are  most  in  demand  as  food  are  not 
found  in  warm  waters. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  from  San  Francisco  northward  to 
the  Yukon  River  in  Alaska  are  the  greatest  salmon  fish- 
eries in  the  world.  During  the  season  when  the  salmon 
are  running  upstream  to  spawn,  or  deposit  eggs,  millions 
of  them  are  caught  each  year  in  the  nets,  or  seines,  that 
are  placed  in  the  rivers  for  this  purpose.  Many  of  the 
fish  are  shipped  to  be  eaten  fresh,  but  at  each  of  the 
fishing  stations  the  greater  part  of  the  catch  is  packed 
in  cans.  This  is  a  very  busy  time  at  the  great  fishing 
stations.  Each  day  great  barges  of  fish  are  brought 
from  the  rivers  to  the  canneries.  The  fish  are  carefully 
cleaned,  packed  into  cans,  and  cooked.  Later  each  can 
is  inspected  several  times,  and  those  that  are  not  per- 
fectly air  tight  are  discarded. 

The  value  of  the  salmon  caught  in  the  Alaskan 
waters  each  year  is  nearly  as  much  as  the  value  of  the 
gold  produced  each  year  in  that  territory  (Fig.  583). 
The  canned  salmon  shipped  from  the  United  States  to 
other  countries  is  more  valuable  than  any  other  of  our 
fish  exports.  In  1916  the  salmon  exported  from  the 
United  States  brought  $15,000,000. 

The  Great  Lakes  supply  whitefish,  lake  salmon,  lake 
trout,  bass,  and  perch  (Fig.  584).  Many  of  the  ponds  and 
lakes  of  this  country  are  well  stocked  with  fish,  and  among 
the  mountains  the  swift,  cold  streams  abound  in  trout. 

Oysters,  crabs,  clams,  and  lobsters  are  really  not 
fish,  but  they  add  to  the  supply  of  sea  food.  They  are 
called  shellfish  because  of  their  hard,  limy,  outer  shells. 


Fig.  583.  These  men  are  Alaskan  salmon  fishermen.  They  are  unloading 
their  day's  catch  of  salmon,  which  will  be  taken  to  the  cannery  close  by 
and  put  up  in  tins  for  export.  What  foreign  countries  buy  large  quantities 
of  American  salmon  ?  Why  is  it  necessary  to  have  laws  to  regulate  the 
fishing  in  American  waters  ? 


298 


FISHERIES 


In  the  shallow  waters  that  are  not  very  cold,  such  as  Conservation  of  our  fish  supplies.  Several  steps  have 
exist  from  Cape  Cod  southward  to  Galveston,  and  in  a  been  taken  to  conserve  our  supply  of  fish.  Laws  have 
few  places  on  the  Pacific  coast,  oysters  live  and  may  be     been  passed  that  make  it  illegal  to  take  fish  under  cer- 


Fig.  584.   Many  of  the  people  who  live  along  the  shores  of  the  lake  in 
western  Michigan  are  engaged  in  the  fishing  industry.  These  men  are  show- 
ing some  of  the  largest  fish  in  their  day's  catch.    Behind  them,  on  the  big 
reels,  are  their  nets.   What  kinds  of  fish  are  caught  in  the  Great  Lakes  ? 


raised  in  abundance.  When 
packed  in  ice  the  fresh 
oysters  may  be  shipped  far 
into  the  interior  of  the 
country,  but  each  year  large 
quantities  are  canned  for 
shipment.  Chesapeake  Bay, 
Delaware  Bay,  and  Long 
Island  Sound  are  important 
centers  of  the  oyster  busi- 
ness (Fig.  585). 

Clams  bury  themselves 
in  the  mud  near  the  shore 
and  must  be  dug  up  at  low 
tide.  Lobsters  and  crabs  are 
caught  in  traps.  The  traps 
are  weighted  so  that  they 
remain  on  the  bottom.   Bait 

is  placed  in  each  trap,  and  as  the  lobsters  crawl  about 
searching  for  food  many  of  them  find  their  way  into  the 
traps.  The  lobsters  live  only  in  cold  waters,  and  the  best 
lobster  fisheries  in  this  country  are  on  the  coast  of  Maine. 
Crabs  live  in  cold  or  warm  waters  and  may  be  caught  off 
the  coast  from  Maine  to  Texas. 

The  whale  and  seal  are  not  fish,  and  yet  we  may 
speak  properly  of  whale  fisheries  and  seal  fisheries.    In 
the  waters  off  the  Alaskan  coast,  especially  far  north  in 
Bering  Strait  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  whales  are  captured, 
and  the  Pribilof  Islands  in  Bering  Sea  are  the  center  of 
the  chief  seal  fisheries  in  the  world.    Seals  come  to  those 
islands  each  year.     The  young   seals  are  born  there, 
and  they  live  on  the  land  until  they  are  large  enough     This  law  was  passed  so  that  fishermen  out  for  sport  would 
to  swim.     Seals  are  protected  by   the  United    States     not  take  more  than  they  wanted  to  eat  while  in  camp, 
government,  but  each  year  a  certain 
number  of  males  are  killed  for  their 
skins    by  a   company  that 


tain  sizes  from  the  lakes  or 
streams.  When  imdersized 
fish  are  caught,  it  is  the  duty 
of  the  fishermen  to  throw 
them  back  into  the  water.  A 
similar  law  has  been  passed 
to  prevent  the  taking  of 
small  lobsters  from  the  sea. 
There  are  very  strict  regu- 
lations controlling  the  catch- 
ing of  salmon.  Nets  cannot 
be  placed  all  the  way  across 
a  stream,  and  cannot  be  kept 
in  the  streams  continuously 
from  week  to  week.  Each 
day  or  each  week  the  nets 
must  be  raised  or  opened 
for  a  certain  length  of  time, 
so  that  some  of  the  fish  that  are  trying  to  swim  upstream 
to  spawn  may  succeed.  Otherwise  no  salmon  eggs  would 
be  deposited,  and  the  supply  of  this  very  valuable  fish 
would  be  exhausted  in  a  few  years. 

The  stocking  of  the  streams,  lakes,  and  ponds  with 
young  fish  is  now  being  carried  on  by  the  national 
government  and  by  many  of  the  state  governments. 
Millions  of  fish  eggs  are  hatched  out,  and  the  young 
fish  are  then  shipped  to  streams  and  lakes  where  there 
has  been  so  much  fishing  as  to  make  this  restocking 
necessary. 

In  certain  of  the  western  states  it  is  illegal  to  sell  moun- 
tain trout  unless  they  are  raised  in  a  privately  owned  pond. 


a  company  tnat  pays  a 
license  fee  for  that  privilege.  For 
years  our  government  could  not  con- 
trol the  killing  of  the  seals  beyond 
three  miles  from  the  islands,  and 
many  mothers  were  shot  at  sea 
while  out  for  fish  to  feed  to  their 
young.  That  meant  the  death  of  the 
young  seals  also.  Now,  by  a  treaty 
between  the  United  States,  Canada, 
and  Japan,  the  killing  of  the  seals 
at  sea  is  regulated. 

Near  the  southern  end  of  Florida 
sponges  and  large  turtles  are  secured. 


Fig.  585.   This  is  a  mound  of  oyster  shells.   The 

oystermen  put  the  old  shells  back  into  the  water 

so  that  the  young  oysters  may  attach  themselves 

to  them  during  their  growth 


Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  What 
habits  of  sea  fish  help  to  make  it  possible 
for  men  to  catch  large  numbers  of  them  ? 
2.  How  many  different  methods  of  catching 
fish  do  you  know  about  ?  3.  Where  are  the 
three  best  fishing  regions  in  the  world  ? 
4.  Why  are  the  fish  abundant  in  these  re- 
gions? 5.  Where  are  the  following  taken  in 
large  numbers :  cod,  salmon,  oysters,  lob- 
sters, and  seals  ?  6.  What  means  have  been 
employed  to  maintain  a  good  supply  of  fish 
and  other  useful  animals  in  the  sea  ?  7.  Of 
what  use  are  the  various  animals  in  the  sea  ? 

Home  work.  1.  What  are  some  of  the 
regulations  in  your  state  regarding  fishing  ? 

2.  Why  are  licenses  required  in  some  states  ? 

3.  Read  "The  Story  of  a  Salmon,"  by  David 
Starr  Jordan  in  "  Science  Sketches." 


INDUSTRIES  DEPENDENT  UPON  IMPORTED  RAW  MATERIALS 


299 


INDUSTRIES  DEPENDENT  UPON  IMPORTED 
RAW  MATERIALS 

It  is  a  striking  fact  that  few  American  industries  are 
absolutely  dependent  upon  raw  materials  from  foreign 
lands.  To  be  sure,  large  quantities  of  raw  materials  are 
imported,  and  many  manufactured  articles  are  brought 
from  other  countries  to  the  United  States.  Much  of  this 
imported  material,  especially  articles  of  clothing  and 
ornaments,  is  imported  to  please  the  fancy  of  Ameri- 
can purchasers.  Large  quantities  of  wool  and  great 
cargoes  of  hides  and  skins  are  purchased  from  foreign 
people  and  brought  to  this  country  to  supplement  our 
local  supply.  We  could,  however,  greatly  increase  our 
local  supply  of  wool,  hides,  and  skins  if  that  were  neces- 
sary. The  two  great  industries  that  must  have  raw 
materials  from  foreign  lands  are  silk  manufacturing 
and  the  manufacture  of  rubber  goods. 

Silk  manufacturing.  The  United  States  leads  the 
world  in  the  manufacture  of  silk.  The  raw  material  is 
produced  chiefly  in  Japan,  China,  Italy,  and  France. 
The  mulberry  tree  is  grown  in  those  countries,  and  the 
leaves  are  fed  to  the  silkworms.  In  each  of  those  coun- 
tries there  is  an  abundance  of  cheap  labor,  and  therefore 
the  raw  silk  is  produced  at  a  lower  cost  than  would  be 
possible  in  this  country  (Fig.  586). 

The  cost  of  transporting  the  raw  silk  to  the  United 
States  is  very  small,  and  the  conditions  for  manufactur- 
ing here  are  much  better  than  they  are  in  the  lands 
where  the  silkworms  are  raised. 

Paterson,  New  Jersey,  is  one  of  the  leading  centers 
of  the  silk  industry  in  this  country.  In  that  city  the 
iron  works  employ  the  men,  but  that  leaves  many  of 
the  wives  and  daughters  free  to  work  in  the  silk  mills. 


BBM  Chief  silk  producing  areas 
•      Chief  .silk-manufacturing 
centers 
— — "*"  Chief  routes  of  export 


SILKPRODUCING  REGIONS  OF  THE- WORLD 


Fig.  586.  Is  most  of  the  world's  silk  produced  in  thickly  or  thinly  settled  countries  ?  in 
cold  or  warm  regions  ?  Why  is  so  much  of  the  raw  silk  sent  to  distant  lands  to  be 
manufactured  ?  Notice  that  South  America,  Africa,  and  Australia  neither  produce  nor 
manufacture  silk.  Why  are  the  chief  American  centers  of  silk  manufacture  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States  rather  than  in  the  western  part  ? 


Fig.  587.  The  manufacture  of  automobile  tires  in  the  United  States  is 
increasing  every  year,  and  thousands  of  men  are  employed  in  this  industry. 
In  addition  to  the  rubber,  the  making  of  tires  requires  large  quantities  of 
strong  cotton  cloth  and  certain  chemical  supplies.  Which  one  of  these 
materials  is  often  obtained  from  foreign  countries  ? 

In  a  silk  mill  there  is  very  little  heavy  work,  and  there- 
fore a  great  many  women  and  girls  are  employed. 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  are  also  important  centers 
of  the  silk  industry. 

At  Allentown,  Pennsylvania,  large  numbers  of  men 
are  employed  in  cement  works,  and  that  leaves  a  num- 
ber of  women  available  for  helping  in  the  manufacture 
of  silk.  In  the  coal-mining  towns  of  Pennsylvania,  es- 
pecially Scranton  and  Wilkes-Barre,  where  the  men  are 
employed  in  the  mines,  silk  mills  have  been  estab- 
lished. Pennsylvania  now  leads  in  the  amount  of  silk 
manufactured  each  year. 

Silk  fibers  are  now  being  produced  artificially  in  France, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  England,  and  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  wonderful  invention.  Chemists  have  dis- 
covered a  way  to  make  a  jellylike  substance 
from  cotton  or  even  from  sawdust  which,  when 
forced  by  compressed  air  through  tiny  holes 
in  a  glass  plate,  forms  very  delicate  fibers. 
These  fibers  are  so  fine  that  from  ten  to  twenty 
must  be  twisted  together  to  form  a  single 
thread. 

The  manufacture  of  rubber  goods.  The  United 
States  leads  the  world  in  the  production  of 
rubber  goods  and  yet  must  import  the  neces- 
sary crude  rubber  from  distant  lands. 

For  many  years  most  of  our  crude  rubber 
came  from  the  tropical  forests  of  the  Amazon 
and  the  Congo.  Within  recent  years,  how- 
ever, our  rubber  industry  has  grown  to  such  an 
extent  that  there  is  not  enough  forest  rubber 
to  supply  our  needs.    To  meet  the  increased 


300 


INLAND  COMMERCE 


demand  for  rubber,  large 
areas  in  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula, the  East  Indies,  and 
India  have  been  planted 
with  rubber  trees.  Planta- 
tion rubber  now  forms  the 
greater  part  of  the  total 
world's  supply.  We  still 
import  crude  rubber  from 
South  America  and  Africa, 
but  our  greatest  supply 
comes  from  the  plantations 
of  southwestern  Asia. 

For  many  years  crude 
rubber  was  used  only  to 
make  erasers.  In  1823 
Macintosh  invented  a  way 
to  mix  sulphur  with  rub- 
ber, and  the  product  which 
he  obtained  was  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  waterproof 
clothing,  boots,  and  shoes.  In  1842  Goodyear  improved 
those  inventions,  and  since  then  there  has  been  a  rapid 
increase  in  the  rubber-manufacturing  industry  in  this 
country  and  in  the  countries  of  western  Europe. 

Since  the  invention  of  rubber  tires  for  bicycles,  car- 
riages, and  automobiles  the  demand  for  more  rubber 
has  been  enormous.  Rubber  tubing  is  used  in  all  civi- 
lized lands,  and  large  quantities  of  rubber  are  used  to 
cover  electric  wires  and  in  the  manufacture  of  many 
useful  articles. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  rubber  industry  in  this  coun- 
try requires  each  year  an  amount  of  crude  rubber  about 
equal  to  one  pound  for  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in 
the  United  States. 

The  manufacture  of  rubber  boots  and  shoes  is  centered 
in  southern  New  England.  New  England  factories  also 
produce  rubber  tires,  but  the  manufacture   of  rubber 


y  Publishers'  Photo  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  588.  This  is  a  view  in  a  hemp  mill  in  the  United  States  where  strong 
ropes  and  cords  are  made.  In  the  foreground  is  the  raw  hemp.  Although 
the  United  States  produces  some  hemp,  it  is  not  enough  to  supply  the  rope 
factories,  and  a  large  amount  must  be  imported.  From  what  countries  is 

hemp  obtained  ? 


tires  is  now  a  very  large 
business,  which  is  carried  on 
in  many  different  centers. 
Akron,  Ohio,  is  one  of  the 
very  important  producing 
centers  (Fig.  587). 

Problems  and  review  questions. 

1.  What  large  industries  in  the 
United  States  are  absolutely 
dependent  upon  raw  materials 
from  foreign  lands  ?  2.  Are  they 
the  only  industries  for  which 
raw  materials  are  imported  into 
the  United  States  ?  3.  How  is 
raw  silk  produced  ? 

4.  From  what  countries  do  we 
import  large  quantities  of  raw 
silk?  5.  Why  does  it  not  cost 
much  to  produce  raw  silk  in  those 
countries  ?  6.  Where  are  some  of 
the  leading  centers  for  the  manu- 
facture of  silk  in  this  country  ? 
Why  were  the  silk  factories 
located  in  those  cities  ?  7.  What  parts  of  the  world  are  the  chief 
producers  of  crude  rubber  ?  8.  Why  should  the  United  States 
take  the  lead  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber  goods  ?  9.  What  Ohio 
city  is  especially  well  known  for  the  production  of  rubber  goods  ? 
10.  What  inventions  have  helped  develop  the  rubber  industry  ? 

Home  work.  1.  Make  a  list  of  all  the  articles  you  know  of 
in  which  there  is  rubber.    2.  Of  what  is  satin  made  ? 

INLAND  COMMERCE 

With  the  increase  in  population  and  with  the  spread- 
ing of  the  people  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  there 
came  the  necessity  for  inland  commerce.  The  settlers  in 
the  interior  and  Far  West  wished  to  exchange  foodstuffs 
and  precious  metals  for  articles  manufactured  in  the  East 
or  imported  from  abroad.  The  farms  of  the  Central 
Plains  and  the  ranches  of  the  Great  Plains  increased  in 
number  and  size,  and  their  total  output  of  grains, 
cattle,  sheep,  horses,  mules,  and  hogs  became  enormous. 


Fig.  589.  These  lake  freighters  are  being  loaded  with  grain  at  Superior, 
Wisconsin.  They  anchor  close  to  the  great  elevator,  and  the  grain  runs 
down  through  pipes  directly  into  their  holds.  These  vessels  will  carry  the 
grain  to  the  eastern  lake  ports.  Of  what  will  their  return  cargoes  consist  ? 
Trace  the  route  of  these  freighters  on  the  map  between  pages  95  and  98 


Fig.  590.  This  train,  drawn  by  an  electric  locomotive,  is  crossing  the  Conti- 
nental Divide  on  the  boundary  between  Montana  and  Idaho.  This  is  one 
of  the  railroads  which  climb  the  Rocky  Mountains,  making  it  possible  to 
travel  without  change  from  the  Pacific-coast  states  to  the  Central  Plains. 
Trace  the  route  of  this  railroad  on  the  map  between  pages  95  and  98 


INLAND  COMMERCE 


301 


Fig.  591.  This  view  shows  a  muddy,  unimproved  road  over  which  trans- 
portation is  slow  and  costly.  As  the  inland  commerce  of  the  United  States 
has  increased,  all  the  states  have  taken  measures  to  improve  the  roads  in 
order  that  products  may  be  transported  quickly  and  easily.  Contrast  this 
road  with  the  one  in  Fig.  592 

Waterways.  At  first  the  waterways  were  the  chief 
routes  for  the  transportation  of  freight  and  the  chief 
routes  of  travel.  The  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  system 
directed  the  movements  of  people  and  of  goods  in  the 
interior  of  the  country.  The  Great  Lakes  became  im- 
portant routes  of  transportation,  and  since  the  opening 
of  the  canals  between  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron  the 
traffic  on  these  lakes  has  been  very  heavy.  More  tons 
of  freight  now  pass  from  Lake  Superior  to  ports  on 
the  other  Great  Lakes  than  are  handled  at  New  York, 
London,  and  Liverpool  put  together,  and  that  is  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  the  canals  at  the  Sault  St.  Marie  are 
frozen  for  a  period  of  three  or  four  months  each  year. 

The  Great  Lakes  will 
continue  to  be  an  impor- 
tant route  for  the  shipment 
of  copper,  iron,  and  grain 
eastward,  and  of  coal  west- 
ward (Fig.  589).  Large 
quantities  of  lumber  are 
now  being  carried  on  the 
lake  steamers,  and  that  will 
continue  to  be  so  for  some 
years  to  come. 

River  transportation  has 
not  been  promoted  or  devel- 
oped in  this  country  as  it 
might  have  been.  The  coun- 
tries in  the  Central  Plain  of 
Europe  make  a  much  greater 
use  of  their  rivers  as  high- 
ways than  we  do  of  our 
rivers  in  the  interior  plains. 


ss  Illustrating;  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  593.  Motor  trucks  now  play  a  very  important  part  in  the  inland  com- 
merce of  the  United  States.  The  trucks  in  this  view  are  lined  up  in  front 
of  a  great  freight  terminal  in  New  York  City,  waiting  to  be  loaded  with 
goods  for  delivery.  Of  what  value  are  motor  trucks  to  inland  commerce  ? 


Fig.  592.  The  road  in  this  view  has  been  improved.  Its  surface  is  now 
hard  and  smooth,  and  wagons  and  motor  trucks  may  pass  over  it  with 
speed  and  safety.  The  two  traction  engines  are  drawing  cars  of  road- 
building  materials.  Of  what  advantage  is  it  to  the  nation  to  have  good 
roads  in  place  of  bad  roads  ? 

Our  neglect  may  in  time  be  corrected.  In  the  early  days 
of  settlement  the  movement  of  goods  and  of  people  was 
chiefly  along  east-and-west  lines.  Our  foreign  trade  was, 
and  continues  to  be,  chiefly  with  the  countries  of  western 
Europe.  See  Appendix,  Plate  B.  It  was  very  natural, 
therefore,  that  for  a  time  the  rivers  flowing  toward  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  should  be  largely  neglected. 

Now  the  trade  of  the  United  States  with  South  Amer- 
ica and  with  all  the  countries  bordering  the  great  Amer- 
ican Mediterranean  is  rapidly  increasing.  The  American 
Mediterranean  includes  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  It  lies  between  North  and  South  America. 
The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  has  made  the  countries 

of  western  South  America 
and  those  to  the  west  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean  more  easily 
accessible  from  the  eastern 
part  of  our  country.  This 
should  lead  also  to  a  greater 
use  of  our  inland  water- 
ways in  the  Mississippi 
River  system,  so  that  manu- 
factured goods  from  the  in- 
terior of  our  country  can  go 
by  way  of  New  Orleans, 
rather  than  by  way  of  New 
York,  to  Central  America 
and  South  America.  This 
use  of  the  rivers  should 
relieve  the  railroads  of  a 
great  burden  of  work  and 
reduce  the  cost  of  trans- 
porting certain  articles. 


302 


FOREIGN  COMMERCE 


Fig.  594.  To-day  all  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States  are  important  railroad  centers. 
Each  city  has  at  least  one  and  often  several  great  railroad  stations,  and  a  network  of 
tracks  over  which  passenger  and  freight  trains  are  arriving  and  leaving  at  all  hours. 
This  view  shows  the  new  railroad  station  at  Detroit.  Name  ten  great  railroad  centers  in 
this  country.   See  map  between  pages  95  and  98 

Railroads.  The  development  of  our  rich  interior  and 
Western  states  came  just  at  the  time  when  the  American 
locomotive  was  being  perfected  and  during  the  era  of 
great  railroad  construction.  It  would  be  very  difficult 
to  say  what  stage  in  the  settlement  and  development  of 
our  vast  territory  we  should  have  reached  by  this  time 
if  no  railroads  had  been  constructed.  These  roads  have 
made  it  possible  to  transport  the  products  of  the  farms 
and  ranches  quickly,  to  send  ores  from  the  Western  mines 
to  smelters,  to  bring  to  markets  in  the  Mississippi  Valley 
the  sheep  and  cattle  from  the  mountain  and  plateau 
regions,  and  to  ship  westward  the  manufactured  goods 
from  the  eastern  and  central  industrial  districts.  Great 
railroads  bind  together  the  northern  and  southern  por- 
tions of  our  country,  giving  to  the  people  living  in  each 
portion  the  advantage  of  using  products  raised  or  pro- 
duced in  the  other. 

The  railroads  have  bound  the  country  together.  They 
have  made  it  convenient  for  business  men  to  travel  from 
one  part  of  the  country  to  another  and  meet  those  with 
whom  they  are  trading.  The  railroads  have  invited 
people  to  travel  for  pleasure  and  thus  see  and  appre- 
ciate the  value  of  the  different  parts  of  our  country. 
They  have  made  it  possible  for  representatives  to  come 
easily  from  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  country  and 
take  part  in  the  government  of  the  nation  at  Wash- 
ington. The  United  States  is  a  large  country,  but  the 
American  systems  of  railroads  have  removed  the  diffi- 
culties that  great  distances  presented  and  have  enabled  us 
to  develop  as  a  strong  and  united  people  (Figs.  590,  594). 


FOREIGN  COMMERCE 

Our  foreign  trade  began  in  a  very  simple 
way.    The   planters  in   Virginia  and  neigh- 
boring colonies  shipped  their  tobacco  directly 
from  their  wharves  to  England  and  received 
in  trade  manufactured  goods.    For  some  time 
the  colonists  in  this  country  looked  to  the 
mother   country   for   manufactured    articles. 
The  settlers  in  New  England  had  an  abun- 
dance of  timber  from  which  to  build  ships, 
and  they  had  a  surplus  of  lumber  and  fish. 
These  natural  resources  led  to  the  opening  of 
foreign  trade.    Vessels  left  the  New  England 
ports  with  cargoes  of  lumber  for  England  and 
fish  for  Spain.    They  traded  their  cargoes  for 
manufactured  goods  and  started  for  the  coast 
of  Africa.     There  they  took  on  cargoes  of 
slaves   and    sailed   westward    for   the   West 
Indies.    Some  of  the  slaves  were  left  on  the 
islands  of  the  West  Indies  in  exchange  for 
sugar   and   molasses   that   were   brought   to 
New  England  and  there  made  into  rum. 
The  sailing  vessels  took  advantage  of  the  ocean  cur- 
rents and  of  the  prevailing  winds  on  that  circuit.  When 
the  steamboat  was  invented,  the  traffic  east  and  west 
across  the  north  Atlantic  increased  rapidly,  until  to-day 
it  is  the  route  of  heaviest  ocean  traffic  in  the  world. 
We  have  been  sending  bulky  cargoes  of  cotton,  wheat, 
corn,  meat,  lumber,  and  copper  over  this  route  to  Europe. 
We  have  been  receiving  less  bulky  shipments  of  manu- 
factured articles  and,  in  addition,  thousands  and  thou- 
sands of  emigrants  from  Em-ope. 

We  have  produced  more  food  than  we  needed  and 
have  taken  in  exchange  products  from  European  factories. 


Fig.  595.  The  newest  means  of  transportation  in  the  United  States  is  the 
aeroplane.  The  plane  in  this  picture  is  a  government  machine  which  is 
used  for  carrying  mail.  At  present  aeroplanes  are  not  used  very  generally 
for  freight  or  passenger  service,  but  it  is  believed  that  in  the  future  they 
will  be  serviceable  for  this  purpose 


FOREIGN  COMMERCE 


303 


)  Press  Illustrating  Service,  Inc. 

Fig.  596.  Enormous  quantities  of  raw  materials  from  foreign  countries 
arrive  at  our  seaports  every  week.  Piled  up  in  the  foreground  of  this  view 
are  logs  from  a  species  of  hardwood  tree  which  grows  in  the  West  Indies. 
These  logs  will  be  sent  to  a  factory  where  they  will  be  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  furniture 

Since  1850  there  has  been  a  remarkable  change  in  the 
foreign  trade  of  the  United  States.  In  1850  about  62  per 
cent  of  our  exports  were  raw,  or  crude,  materials,  to  be 
used  in  manufacturing,  and  about  17  per  cent  were 
-manufactured  products.  In  1916  about  12  per  cent  were 
raw  materials,  and  about  62  per  cent  were  manufactured 
articles. 

Our  imports  in  1850  were  about  6  per  cent  raw  mate- 
rials and  70  per  cent  manufactured  articles ;  and  in  1916 
about  43  per  cent  of  our  imports  were  raw  materials  for 
our  factories,  and  about  30  per  cent  were  manufactured 
products. 

This  change  has  a  very  important  meaning.  We  are 
not  a  land  to  which  the  crowded  nations  of  Europe  may 
always  look  for  foods  and  crude  materials  for  manu- 
facture, and  we  are  not  a  country  where  the  European 
nations  can  always  expect  to  unload  their  surplus  of 
manufactured  articles. 

We  shall  need  the  food  we  produce, 
and  more ;  and  we  shall  manufacture 
all  or  most  of  the  articles  that  we  need. 
Our  demands  from  foreign  lands  are 
therefore  going  to  be  certain  foods 
and  various  other  raw  materials  which, 
for  different  reasons,  we  cannot  pro- 
duce in  this  country  or  which  we  can 
secure  more  economically  from  foreign 
countries  in  exchange  for  our  exports 
(Figs.'  596,  597). 

We  shall  want  to  import  coffee, 
sugar,  cacao,  rice,  spices,  and  bananas ; 


and  we  shall  want  silk,  rubber,  Manila  hemp,  jute,  and 
a  few  other  fibers.  Palm  oil  and  other  products  from 
tropical  forests  will  be  imported  also.  We  shall  probably 
continue  to  import  large  quantities  of  wool  and  great 
numbers  of  hides  and  skins. 

All  tbis  means  that  in  the  future  we  shall  look  more 
to  the  countries  in  the  tropics,  and  to  sparsely  settled 
countries  such  as  those  in  South  America,  for  trade  rela- 
tions. We  shall  have  manufactured  goods  in  excess  of 
our  needs,  to  send  to  the  new  agricultural  countries 
of  South  America.  The  trade  may  then  be  expected  to 
increase  more  rapidly  along  north-and-south  lines  than 
along  the  east-and-west  routes  across  the  Atlantic. 

We  may  also  look  forward  with  confidence  to  a  great 
increase  in  the  trade  across  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
people  of  eastern  Asia  and  of  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
the  Philippines,  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  and  certain  of  the 
smaller  islands  of  the  Pacific  are  sure  to  want  some  of 
the  wonderfully  useful  articles  invented  and  manufac- 
tured in  the  United  States;  and  in  exchange  they  will 
send  raw  materials,  foods,  and  many  articles  from  their 
factories  that  we  enjoy  having  in  our  homes. 

Problems  and  review  questions.  1.  How,  in  general,  does  the 
westward-moving  freight  differ  from  that  moving  eastward  in 
this  country  ?  2.  "What  inland  waterways  are  now  much  used  ? 
3.  What  ones  offer  great  opportunities  for  future  development 
and  usefulness  ? 

4.  What  reasons  are  there  for  expecting  the  Mississippi  River 
system  to  come  into  greater  use  in  the  transfer  of  freight?  5.  In 
what  ways  have  the  railroads  helped  in  the  development  of  the 
United  States  ? 

6.  With  what  countries  is  most  of  our  foreign  trade  now  ?  How 
may  this  be  explained  ?  7.  How  has  our  foreign  trade  changed 
in  the  last  seventy  years  ?  Why  ?  8.  Why  do  we  now  expect  to 
increase  our  trade  with  South  American  countries  and  countries 
across  the  Pacific  ?  9.  What  kinds  of  articles  shall  we  probably 
always  want  to  import  ?    From  what  countries  can  we  get  them  ? 

Home  work.  1.  What  parts  of  this  country  and  what  foreign  lands 
are  represented  by  the  food  used  in  your  home  ?  2.  What  articles 
have  you  seen  that  were  manufactured  in  a  foreign  country? 


Fig.  597.   This  ship  is  in  dock  at  Charleston,  South  Carolina.   It  has  come  from  the  west  coast  of 

South  America  by  way  of  the  Panama  Canal.   On  its  way  north  it  stopped  at  Limon,  Costa  Rica. 

What  products  has  it  brought  to  Charleston  ?   Now  it  is  being  loaded  for  a  trip  to  Europe.   What 

will  its  cargo  be  ?   What  things  will  it  bring  back  from  Europe  ? 


304  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION 

SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSION  A  remarkabie   development  of  industries   and  com- 

The  first  colonists  who  settled  on  the  Atlantic  coast  merce  followed.  We  needed  more  raw  material.   Certain 

of  North  America  came  from  the  countries  of  western  manufacturing  plants  required  material  grown  only  in 

Europe.     Most  of  them  were  English,  although  there  the  tropics.    Foreign  commerce  became  more  and  more 

were    many  Dutch,   some    French,   some    Swedes,  and  important,  and  foreign  travel  became  more  and  more 

some  Spanish.  common.    In  time,  and  in  a  most  natural  way,  we  came 

They  came  for  greater  freedom.   Some  wanted  greater  to  have  a  real  interest  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world, 

religious  freedom;  others  wanted  greater  opportunities  We  should  appreciate  but  not  boast  of  the  fact  that 

to  develop  estates  of  their  own ;  many  wanted  greater  we  are  now  the  wealthiest  nation  in  the  world.    That 

political  freedom.  great  wealth  has  brought  with  it  a  great  responsibility. 

These  people  were  fortunate  in  settling  in  a  land  in  We  must  help  other  people  and  do  more  good  in  the 
the  north  temperate  zone,  with  a  climate  that  was  suit-  world  than  any  other  nation.  Our  great  natural  resources 
able  for  active  lives.  The  temperature  was  not  too  cold  have  made  it  possible  for  us  to  become  the  leading  manu- 
or  too  warm  for  men  to  work  in ;  the  rainfall  was  not  facturing  nation.  We  must  now  supply  manufactured 
too  little  or  too  much,  but  just  about  right  for  agricul-  goods  to  distant  lands  and  especially  to  people  in  newly 
ture ;  the  changes  from  day  to  day  and  from  month  to  settled  parts  of  the  earth  and  in  parts  where  coal  and  iron 
month  gave  variety  to  the  weather  and  kept  the  set-  are  scarce.  Our  farming  implements  and  our  machinery 
tiers  active  and  energetic.  The  change  from  summer  should  go  to  other  lands  to  help  other  people  to  gain 
to  winter  compelled  the  settlers  to  use  foresight.  They  prosperity  in  the  development  of  their  resources, 
found  it  necessary  to  look  ahead  and  provide  food,  The  people  came  to  this  new  country  with  a  willing- 
clothing,  shelter,  and  fuel.  ness  to  work  hard,  to  put  up  with  some  difficult  condi- 
-  The  Appalachian  Highlands  helped  for  some  time  to  tions,  and  to  work  together  so  that  a  new  country  might 
keep  these  early  settlers  near  the  Atlantic  coast.  Here  be  established,  with  greater  freedom  for  the  inhabitants, 
they  had  many  interests  in  common  and  soon  developed  Many  of  those  who  came  to  the  New  World  were  people 
a  strong  and  independent  nation.  with  enthusiasm  and  with  high  ideals  and  great  powers 

As  time  passed,  these  people  found  that  they  were  in  of  imagination.  They  saw  here  the  possibilities  of  devel- 
a  country  of  vast  natural  resources.  The  fishing  grounds,  oping  a  great  nation  of  free  people.  The  descendants  of 
the  harbors,  the  soils,  and  the  timber  and  other  building  those  people  have  grown  up  in  an  atmosphere  of  free- 
materials  encouraged  the  colonists  to  establish  perma-  dom.  A  great  system  of  public  schools  has  been  devel- 
nent  homes  and  to  engage  in  foreign  commerce.  oped,  and  in  those  schools  all  children  have  learned  the 

Little  by  little  the  settlers  pushed  farther  and  farther  history  of  the  founding  of  this  nation,  the  ideals  of  the 

west.    After  crossing  the  Appalachian  Mountains  they  early  colonists,  and  about  the  people  who  have  been 

followed  the  navigable  rivers  or  the  shores  of  the  Great  the  leaders  from  time  to  time  as  the  nation  has  grown. 

Lakes.    The  rich  farm  lands  of  the  great  interior  of  this  In  time  we  came  into  possession  of  foreign  lands.   We 

country  were  largely  brought  under  cultivation.  In  time  assumed  new  responsibilities  in  caring  for  those  lands 

the  farming  and  grazing  lands  between  the  Missouri  and  in  governing,  or  helping  to  govern,  other  people. 

River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains  were  settled.    Many  In  the  World  War  of  1914-1918  we  took  an  important 

prospectors  went  far  west  and  explored  the  mountain  part  in  order  that  peace  might  be  made  secure  in  this 

and  plateau  regions  until  all  the  land  in  the  United  world  and  that  other  peoples  might  enjoy  freedom. 

States,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  came  to  be  known.  We  now  have  a  great  responsibility,  with  other  nations, 

Discoveries  of  coal,  oil,  and  gas,  and  of  iron,  copper,  —  to  help  maintain  peace  and  freedom  in  the  world.   To 

gold,  silver,  lead,  zinc,  and  numerous  other  minerals  meet  these  responsibilities  we  must  maintain  order  and 

were  made,  and  as  a  result  mining  and  manufacturing  prosperity  in  this  country.    We  must  conserve  the  great 

have  been  developed  on  a  large  scale.  natural  resources  and  work  together  in  the  friendliest 

The  wonderful  prosperity  of  those  living  in  this  country  spirit  to  produce  food  and  the  raw  materials  used  in  the 

led  millions  of  other  people  to  come  here.    Immigrants  making  of  clothing  and  in  the  building  of  houses.    We 

came  from  nearly  every  country  in  the  world.    Each  of  must,  however,  do  much  more  than  merely  support  life ; 

the  larger  nations  of  Europe  is  represented  in  the  popu-  we  must  aim  to  promote  the  higher  and  better  education 

lation  of  the  United  States.    Most  of  the  nations  of  Asia  of  all  people,  to  promote  the  fine  arts  of  music,  painting, 

also  are  represented.   Negroes  from  Africa  were  brought  and  sculpture,  and  in  every  way  possible  to  make  the 

here,  and  natives  from  many  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  social  conditions  in  the  community  where  we  live,  and 

Ocean  have  found  their  way  to  this  country.  in  the  whole  world,  more  pleasant. 


1 


APPENDIX 


REFERENCE   BOOKS 


The  names  of  the  following  publishing  houses  are  abbreviated  as  below: 
American  Book  Company,  New  York  (A. B.C.) ;  American  Geographical  Society, 
New  York  (Am.  G.  S.) ;  D.  Appleton  and  Company,  New  York  (Appleton) ;  Asia 
Publishing  Company,  New  York  (Asia) ;  Adam  and  Charles  Black,  London  (A.  &  C. 
Black) ;  The  Century  Company,  New  York  (Cent.) ;  Dodd,  Mead  and  Company, 
New  York  (Dodd) ;  E.  P.  Dutton  and  Company,  New  York  (Dutton) ;  Educational 
Publishing  Company,  Boston  (Ed.  Pub.) ;  A.  Flanagan  Company,  Chicago  (Flana- 
gan) ;  Ginn  and  Company,  Boston  (Ginn) ;  Harper  and  Brothers,  New  York 
(Harpers) ;  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston  (Heath) ;  Henry  Holt  and  Company,  New 
York  (Holt) ;  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  Boston  (H.  M.) ;  Orange  Judd  Com- 
pany, New  York  (Judd) ;  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,  Philadelphia  (Lip.) ;  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.,  New  York  (Longmans) ;  The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York 
(Mac.) ;  National  Geographic  Society,  Washington,  D.  C.  (N.  G.  S.) ;  Oxford  Uni- 
versity Press,  London,  England  (Oxford) ;  Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triibner  and 
Company,  London  (Kegan  Paul) ;  Rand  McNally  &  Company,  Chicago  (Rand) ; 
Fleming  H.  Revell  Company,  New  York  (Revell) ;  Royal  Geographical  Society, 
London  (R.  G.  S.) ;  Royal  Scottish  Geographical  Society,  Edinburgh  (R.  S.  G.  S.) ; 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York  (Scrib.) ;  Silver,  Burdett  &  Company,  New 
York  (Burdett) ;  Frederick  A.  Stokes  Company,  New  York  (Stokes). 

Standard  Books  of  Reference.  *Bi:igham,A.P.,  Commercial  Geography 
(Ginn)  ;  Chisholm,  G.  G.,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography  (Long- 
mans) ;  Cuitn,  A.  L.,  Commercial  Geography  —  An  Intermediate  Text- 
Book  (A.  &  C.  Black)  ;  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (Cambridge  University 
Press) ;  *  Gregory,  Keller,  and  Bishop,  Physical  and  Commercial 
Geography  (Ginn) ;  Herbertson,  F.  L.  D.,  The  Clarendon  Geography 
(The  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford) ;  McFarlane,  J.,  Economic  Geography 
(Mac.)  ;  Mill,  H.  R.,  The  International  Geography  (Appleton)  ;  Salis- 
bury, R.  D.,  Physiography  (Holt)  ;  Salisbury,  Barrows,  and  Tower, 
Modern  Geography  (Holt) ;  Semple,  E.  C,  Influences  of  Geographic 
Environment  (Holt)  ;  Smith,  R.  J.,  Industrial  and  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy (Holt);  Stanford,  E.,  Compendium  of  Geography  —  North  Amer- 
ica, Central  and  South  America,  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Australia  (Edward 
Stanford,  London) ;   The  Statesman's  Year  Book,  an  annual  (Mac). 

Standard  Atlases  and  Charts.  Bartholomew,  J.G.,  An  Atlas  of  Eco- 
nomic Geography  (Oxford) ;  The  Century  Dictionary  and  Cyclopedia, 
Vol.  X,  Atlas  (Cent.)  ;  Geography  of  the  World's  Agriculture  (Dept.  of 
Agriculture) ;  Shepherd,  W.  R.,  Historical  Atlas  (Holt) ;  United 
States  Geological  Survey  Maps  (Address :  The  Director,  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C);  Vidal-Lablache,  P.,  Atlas 
General  (A.  Colin). 

Standard  Magazines.  Asia —  Journal  of  the  American  Asiatic 
Association  (Asia)  ;  Geographical  Journal  (R.  G.  S.)  ;  Geographical  Review 
(Am.  G.  S.)  ;  Journal  of  Geography  (Am.  G.  S.)  ;  National  Geographic 
Magazine  (N.  G.  S.)  ;  Scottish  Geographic  Magazine  (R.  S.  G.  S.). 

Government  Publications.  Department  of  Agriculture:  (1)  Yearbook 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture ;  (2)  Daily  Weather  Map,  Washington, 
D.  C,  Edition  (Address :  The  Editor  in  Chief,  Division  of  Publications, 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C).  Bureau  of  the  Census  : 
(1)  Reports  and  bulletins  of  the  census  (Address:  The  Director,  Bureau 
of  the  Census,  Washington,  D.  C.)  ;  (2)  United  States  Geological  Survey 
bulletins  and  maps  (Address :  The  Director,  United  States  Geological 
Survey,  Washington,  D.  C). 

North  America.  Brigham,  A.  P.,  Geographic  Influences  in  American 
History  (Ginn);  *  Carpenter,  F.  G.,  Geographical  Readers — North 
America  (A. B.C.);  *  Herbertson,  F.D.  and  A.  J.,  Descriptive  Geog- 
raphies—  North  America  (A.  &  C.  Black)  ;  *  Rociieleau,  W.  F.,  The 
Geography  of  Commerce  and  Industry  (Ed.  Pub.) ;  Semple,  E.  C, 
American  History  and  its  Geographic  Conditions  (II.  M.). 

The  United  States.  *  Allen,  N.  B.,  Geographical  and  Industrial 
Studies  —  United  States  (Ginn)  ;  *  Dondlinger,  P.  T.,  The  Book  of 
1  Books  starred  are  suitable  for  the  use  of  the  pupil. 


Wheat  (Judd);  *  Fairbanks,  H.  W.,  The  Western  United  States 
(Heath)  ;  *  Fisher,  E.  F.,  Resources  and  Industries  of  the  United  States 
(Ginn) ;  Gannett,  II.,  United  States  (in  Stanford's  Compendium) ; 
McMurry,  C.  A.,  Type  Studies  from  the  Geography  of  the  United 
States  (Mac.) ;  Shaler,  N.  S.,  The  Story  of  Our  Continent  (Ginn) ; 
Smith,  R.  J.,  The  Story  of  Iron  and  Steel  (Appleton);  Tower,  W.  S., 
The  Story  of  Oil  (Appleton)  ;  Van  Hise,  C.  R.,  Resources  of  the  United 
States  and  their  Conservation  (Mac). 

Possessions  of  The  United  States.  Brooks,  A.  II.,  Geography  of 
Alaska    (Professional   Paper   45,  United   States    Geological   Survey) ; 

*  George,  M.  M.,  Little  Journeys  to  Alaska  and  Canada  (Flanagan) ; 

*  George,  M.M.,  Little  Journeys  to  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines  (Flan- 
agan) ;  *  Greater  America  (Perry  Mason  Company)  ;  *  Knapp,  A.,  The 
World  and  its  People  —  Book  XI,  The  Story  of  the  Philippines 
(Burdett);  MacClintock,  S.,  The  Philippines  (A. B.C.). 

Other  Countries  of  North  America.  *  Bishop,  F.,  Panama,  Past  and 
Present  (Cent.);  The  Canada  Year  Book,  an  annual;  Enock,  C.R, 
Mexico  (Scrib.);  Koebel,  W.  II.,  Central  America  (Scrib.). 

South  America.  *Allen,  N.  B.,  South  America  (Ginn) ;  Bowman,  I., 
South  America  (Rand)  ;  Bryce,  J.,  South  America  (Mac.) ;  Buley, 
E.  C,  Brazil  (Appleton) ;  *  Carpenter,  F.  G.,  South  America  ( A.  B.  C.) ; 
Enock,  C.  R.,  Ecuador  (Scrib.)  ;  Enock,  C.  R.,  Peru  (Scrib.) ;  *  Her- 
bertson, F.  D.  and  A.  J.,  Central  and  South  America  (A.  &  C.  Black)  ; 
Koebel,  W.  II.,  Paraguay  (Scrib.)  ;  Koebel,  W.  II.,  Uruguay  (Scrib.) ; 
Martinez  and  Lewandowski,  The  Argentine  in  the  Twentieth  Cen- 
tury (Scrib.);  Scott  Elliott,  G.  F.,  Chile  (Scrib.). 

Europe.  *  Allen,  N.B.,  The  New  Europe  (Ginn);  *Carpenter,F.G., 
Europe  (A.B.C.) ;  *Chamberlain,  J.  F.,  The  Continents  and  their  Peo- 
ple—  Europe  (Mac.)  ;  *  Herbertson,  F.  D.  and  A.  J.,  Europe  (A.  &  C. 
Black)  ;  Lyde,  L.  W.,  The  Continent  of  Europe  (Mac.)  ;  Mackinder, 
II.  J.,  Britain  and  the  British  Seas  (Appleton)  ;  Partsch,  J.,  Central 
Europe'  (Appleton). 

Africa.  *  Carpenter,  F.  G.,  Africa  (A.B.C);  *Du  Chaillu,  P., 
Adventures  in  the  Great  Forest  of  Equatorial  Africa  (Scrib.)  ;  *  Her- 
bertson, F.  D.  and  A.  J.,  Africa  (A.  &  C.  Black). 

Asia.  *  Allen,  N.  B.,  Asia  (Ginn);  *  Carpenter,  F.  G.,  Asia 
(A.B.C);  *  Chamberlain,  J.  F.,  Asia  (Mac);  *Finnemore,  J.,  Homes 
of  Many  Lands  —  India  (A.  &C  Black);  *  Herbertson,  F.  D.  and  A.  J., 
Asia  (A.  &  C.  Black)  ;  Hogarth,  D.  G.,  The  Nearer  East  (Appleton) ; 
IIoldich,  T.,  India  (Appleton);  *  Huntington,  E.,  Asia  (Rand); 
Little,  A.,  The  Far  East  (Appleton)  ;  *  Lyde,  L.  W.,  A  Geography 
of  Asia  (Mac.)  ;  *  Redway,  J.  W.,  All  Around  Asia  (Scrib.). 

Australia.  *  Carpenter,  F.  G.,  Australia,  Our  Colonies  and  Islands 
of  the  Sea  (A.  B.  C)  ;  *  Fox,  F.,  Australia  (A.  &  C  Black)  ;  *  Gilson, 
J.  C,  Wealth  of  the  World's   Waste   Places   and    Oceania    (Scrib.) ; 

*  Herbertson,  F.  D.  and  A.  J.,  Australia  and  Oceania  (A.  &  C  Black) ; 

*  Kellogg,  E.  M.,  The  World  and  its  People  —  Book  VIII,  Australia 
and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea  (Burdett). 

Polar  Regions.  *IIorton,  The  Frozen  North  (Heath);  *IIitton, 
S.  K,  Among  the  Eskimos  of  Labrador  (Lip.);  MacMillan,  D.  B.,  Four 
Years  in  the  White  North  (Harpers) ;  Peary,  R.  E.,  The  North  Pole 
(Stokes);  *  Rasmussen,  K.,The  People  of  the  Polar  North  (Kegan  Paul) ; 

*  Schwatka,  F.,  The  Children  of  the  Cold  (Ed.  Pub.) ;  Stefansson, 
V.,  My  Life  with  the  Eskimo  (Mac);  The  Friendly  Arctic  (Mac). 

World  Geography.  *  Herbertson,  F.  D.  and  A.  J.,  Man  and  his  AYork 
(A.  &  C.  Black);  Herbertson,  F.  D.  and  A.  J.,  World  Geography  (The 
Clarendon  Press,  Oxford)  ;  *  Lyde,  L.  W.,  Man  and  his  Markets  (Mac). 


G^M"  JT^hjlli'  J 


Map  Plate,  Patented  July  s,  (921    •    Method  of  Making  Map>,  Patented  July  5, 1921 


Plate  A 


Ginn  and  Company 


IV 


APPENDIX 


WHEAT-PRODUCING  REGIONS  OF  THE  WORLD 
With  dates  of  harvest, and  export  routes 


HEIGHTS  OF  PRINCIPAL  MOUNTAINS 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Most  of  the  wheat  of  the  world  is  grown  in  temperate  climates  where  the  rainfall  is  not 

more  than  30  inches.    What  countries  seem  to  be  of  world  importance  in  the  production 

of  wheat  ?   What  countries  seem  to  produce  more  wheat  than  they  need  ?   During  what 

months  is  wheat  harvested  in  the  different  parts  of  the  world  ? 


CATTLE-PRODUCING  REGIONS  OF  THE  WORLD 
With  routes  of  exporting  beef 


The  three  countries  that  lead  in  the  production  of  cattle  are  India,  the  United  States,  and 
Argentina.  Although  India  ranks  first  in  number,  the  cattle  in  that  country  are  used  very 
little  for  meat  or  milk  but  mostly  as  beasts  of  burden.   Which  of  the  cattle-raising  coun- 
tries are  exporters  of  beef  to  other  parts  of  the  world  ? 


Name 

Mt.  McKinley   . 
Mt.  Logan    .     . 
Mt.  Orizaba  .     . 
Mt.  St.  Elias      . 
Mt.  Popocatepetl 
Mt.  Iztaccihuatl 
Mt.  AVhitney      . 
Mt.  Rainier  (Tacoma) 
Mt.  Shasta    . 
Longs  Peak  . 
Pikes  Peak    . 
Mt.  Holy  Cross 
Lassen  Peak 
Mt.  Mitchell  .     . 
Mt.  AVashington 


Location 
Alaska     .     . 
Canada    . 
Mexico    .     . 
Alaska-Canada 
Mexico    .     . 
Mexico    . 
California    . 
Washington 
California 
Colorado 
Colorado 
Colorado 
California    . 
North  Carolina 
New  Hampshir 


Mt.  Aconcagua . 
Mt.  Illimani 

Mt.  Chimborazo 
Mt.  Cotopaxi 
Mt.  Misti .  .  . 
Mt.  Tolima  .  . 
Mt.  Itatiaya  .  . 
Mt.  Roraima    . 


Mt,  Elbruz    . 
Mt.  Blanc 
Monte  Rosa  . 
Mt.  Etna  .     . 
Ben  Nevis 
Mt.  Vesuvius 


Mt,  Everest  .     .  . 

Mt.  Dapsang      .  . 
Mt.  Kanchanjanga 

Mt.  Demavend  .  . 

Mt.  Ararat    .     .  . 

Mt.  Hermon .     .  . 

Mt.  Sinai  .     .     .  . 


SOUTH  AMERICA 

.  Chile-Argentina 

.  Bolivia    . 

.  Ecuador . 

.  Ecuador  . 

.  Peru   .     . 

.  Colombia 

.  Brazil 

British  Guiana 


EUROPE 

Transcaucasia 
France    . 
Italy  .     . 
Sicily 
Scotland 
Italy  .     . 

ASIA 

Nepal-Tibet 
Tibet       . 
India  .     . 
Persia 
Armenia 
Palestine 
Sinai  Pen 


Height 
ix  Feet 

20,800 

19,5.39 
ls,i'12 
18,000 
17,782 
16,980 
14,501. 
14,408 
14.380 
14.255 
14,110 
13,978 
10,137 
6,711 
6,293 


28,080 

21,188 
20,702 
19,498 
19,200 
18,432 
9,823 
8,635 


18,465 
15,780 
15,215 
10,742 
4,406 
4,260 


29,002 
28,250 
28,146 
18,608 
16,925 
9,052 
8,593 


t  Elizabeth 

-» 

WOOL-PRODUCING  REGIONS  OF  THE  WORLD 
With  dates  of  clipping.and  export  routes 


The  three  countries  that  lead  in  the  production  of  wool  are  Australia,  Argentina,  and  the 
United  States.  What  countries  are  the  chief  exporters  of  wool  ?  Where  is  the  wool  used  ? 
Compare  the  months  in  which  sheep  are  clipped  in  the  northern  hemisphere  with  the  months 
of  clipping  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  At  what  season  are  sheep  clipped  all  over  the  world  ? 


Mt.  Kilimanjaro 
Mt,  Kenya  .  . 
Mt.  Ruwenzori  . 
Mt.  Miltsin  .     . 


AFRICA 

.     Tanganyika  Terr. 
.     Kenya  Colony  .     , 

Uganda    .     .     . 
.     Morocco  .     .     .     . 


AUSTRALIA  AND  OCEANIA 

Mauna  Loa Hawaiian  Islands 

Mt,  Kosciusko   ....     Australia      .     .     . 
Kilauea Hawaiian  Islands 


19,456 
18,373 
16,800 
11,400 


13,675 
7,328 
4,039 


PRINCIPAL  RIVERS 
NORTH  AMERICA 

Length  Basin  Area  in 

Name  inMii.es  Square  .Milks 

Missouri-Mississippi     .     4,221 1,250,000 

Missouri  (entire  length),  2,945  miles 
Mississippi  (entire  length),  2,486  miles 

Mackenzie      ....    2,525 440,000 

Yukon 2,300 440,000 

St.  Lawrence       .     .     .     2,200 350,000 


APPENDIX 


Length  Basin  Aiika  in 

in  Miles  Square  Milks 

1,800 180,000 

1,000 595,100 

1,500 185,000 

Columbia 1,400 250,000 

Colorado 1,100 250,000 


Name 

Rio  Grande    .     .     . 

Nelson-Saskatchewan 

Arkansas  .... 


SOUTH  AMKRICA 

Amazon 3,900 2,500,000 

Parana-Plata .     .     .     .     2,300 1,250,000 

Sao  Francisco     .     .     .     1,800 190,000 

Orinoco 1,500 300,000 


EUROPE 

Volga 2,300 500,000 

Danube i,800 300,000 


Dnieper 
Rhine  .     .     . 
Dvina   . 
Elbe      .     .     . 
Sa6ue-Rhone 
Seine     . 
Thames     .     . 


.     .     1,410 175,000 

960    .   ' 65,000 

700 140,000 

550 42,000 

550 33,000 

497 23,000 

215 6,000 

ASIA 

Ob 3,200 920,000 

Yangtze 3,100 500,000 

Amur 2,900 600,000 

Yenisei 2,800 1,500,000 

Hwang 2,700 540,000 

Lena 2,600 600,000 

Mekong 2,600 280,000 

Indus 2,000 320,000 

Brahmaputra      .     .     .     1,800 425,000 

Euphrates      ....     1,700 260,000 

Ganges 1,500 450,000 

AFRICA 

Nile 4,000 1,400,000 

Niger 2,600 600,000 

Congo  .........     2,900 1,500,000 

Zambezi 1,600 440,000 

NATIONAL  PARKS  — UNITED  STATES 


National  Parks 
Hot  Springs,  1832  . 
Yellowstone,  1872  . 
Sequoia,  1890     .     . 
Yosemite,  1890  .     . 
General  Grant,  1890 
Mt.  Rainier,  1899  . 
Crater  Lake,  1902 
Wind  Cave,  1903    . 
Piatt,  1904    .     .     . 
Sallys  Hill,  1904    . 
Mesa  Verde,  1906  . 
Glacier,  1910      .     . 
Rocky  Mountain,  191 
Hawaii,  1916 
Lassen  Volcanic,  1916 
Mt.  McKinley,  1917 
Grand  Canyon,  1919 
Lafayette,  1919 
Zion^l919     .     .     . 


Location 
Middle  Arkansas    .     .     . 
Northwestern  Wyoming 
Middle  eastern  California 
Middle  eastern  California 
Middle  eastern  California 
West  central  Washington 
Southwestern  Oregon . 
South  Dakota    .     .     . 
Southern  Oklahoma   . 
North  Dakota    .     . 
Southwestern  Colorado 
Northwestern  Montana 
Nor^h  middle  Colorado 
Hawaiian  Islands  . 
Northern  California    . 
South  central  Alaska . 
North  central  Arizona 
Maine  coast  .... 
Southwestern  Utah     . 


Square  Miles 


M 


AREA  OF  OCEANS 

Square  Miles 
Pacific    .     .     .     64,000,000     Arctic     .     . 
Atlantic      .     .     31,500,000     Antarctic    . 
Indian    .     .     .     28,350,000 


Square  Miles 
.  5,540,000 
.       3,600,000 


COTTON-PRODUCING  REGIONS  OF  THE  WORLD 
With  dates  of  picking.and  export  routes 


The  United  States  produces  about  three  fifths  of  the  world's  cotton.  India  and  Egypt  are 
also  important  cotton-raising  countries.  Egypt  produces  an  especially  fine  quality  of  long- 
fibered  cotton.  The  British  Isles  import  more  cotton  than  any  other  country.  During 
what  months  is  most  of  the  cotton-picking  done  ?  What  countries  are  exporters  of  cotton  ? 
What  are  the  chief  ports  of  cotton  export  ? 


COAL-PRODUCING  REGIONS  OF  THE  WORLD 


Is  there  any  continent  without  some  coal  ?  What  continent  seems  to  have  the  largest 
supply  of  coal  ?  Which  one  seems  to  have  the  least  coal  ?  The  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  are  the  two  leading  coal-producing  countries  of  the  world.  The  amount  of  coal 
used  per  person  is  larger  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  country 


IRON-PRODUCING  REGIONS  OF  THE  WORLD 


Iron  is  a  very  widely  distributed  mineral  resource.  Is  there  any  continent  where  iron  has 
not  been  discovered  ?  The  production  of  iron  in  the  United  States  is  greater  than  in  any 
other  country  in  the  world.  The  iron  deposits  in  southern  Brazil  are  very  great,  but  as 
yet  they  have  not  been  extensively  mined.    What  countries  produce  both  iron  and  coal  ? 


Map  Hate.  Patented  Jul;  5,  1921    •    Method  of  Making  Maps,  Patented  July  5,  1921 


60°    Long  N  itude        80°    East  0     from    100°  Green  P  vrich      120 


Plate  B 

1*0°  B  160°  S  180' 'Long.  A    West  160°       B 


©  Ginn  and  Company 


Vlll 


APPENDIX 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


Area  in 

Population 

Statf.s  AMI 

Square 

Census  or 

Territories 

Miles 

1920 

Alabama      .... 

51,998 

2,348,174 

Alaska 

590,884 

55,036 

Arizona 

113,956 

334,162 

Arkansas 

53,335 

1,752,204 

California 

158,297 

3,426,861 

Colorado 

103,948 

939,629 

Connecticut     .     .     .     . 

4,965 

1,380,031 

Delaware 

2,370 

223,003 

District  of  Columbia 

70 

437,571 

Florida 

58,666 

968,470 

Georgia 

59,265 

2,895,832 

Hawaii 

6,449 

255,912 

Idaho      

83,888 

431,866 

Illinois 

56,665 

6,485,280 

Indiana 

36,354 

2,930,390 

Iowa 

56,147 

2,404,021 

Kansas 

82,158 

1,769,257 

Kentucky 

40,598 

2,410,630 

Louisiana 

48,506 

1,798,509 

Maine 

33,040 

768,014 

Maryland 

12,327 

1,449,661 

Massachusetts       .     .     . 

8,266 

3,852,356 

Michigan 

57,980 

3,668,412 

Minnesota 

84,682 

2,387,125 

Mississippi 

46,865 

1,790,618 

Missouri 

69,420 

3,404,055 

Montana 

146,997 

548,889 

Nebraska 

77,520 

1,296,372 

Nevada 

110,690 

77,407 

New  Hampshire  . 

9,341 

443,083 

New  Jersey       .     .     .     . 

8,224 

3,155,900 

New  Mexico     .     .     .     . 

122,634 

360,350 

New  York 

49,204 

10,385,227 

North  Carolina     .     >     . 

52,426 

2,559,123 

North  Dakota  .... 

70,837 

646,872 

Ohio 

41,040 

5,759,394 

Oklahoma 

70,057 

2,028,283 

Oregon 

96,699 

783,389 

Pennsylvania   .     .     .     . 

45,126 

8,720,017 

Rhode  Island  .     .     .     . 

1,248 

604,397 

South  Carolina 

30,989 

1,683,724 

South  Dakota  .... 

77,615 

636,547 

Tennessee 

42,022 

2,337,885 

Texas 

265,896 

4,663,228 

Utah 

84,990 

449,396 

Vermont 

9,564 

352,428 

Virginia.     .'.... 

42,027 

2,309,187 

Washington     .     .     .     . 

69,127 

1,356,621 

West  Virginia 

24,170 

1,403,701 

"Wisconsin 

56,066 

2,632,067 

Wyoming 

97,914 

194,402 

Odtlyino  Possessions 

Guam 

210 

13,275 

Panama  Canal  Zone  . 

527 

22,858 

Philippine  Islands 

115,021! 

10,350,640 

Porto  Rico    .... 

3,4:!5 

1,299,809 

Samoa 

77 

8,056 

Virgin  Islands  ... 

132 

26,051 

PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES 
AND  COLONIES 


NORTH  AMERICA 


8,000,000 


Bahama  Islands  (1921)1       4,404 
Bermuda  Islands8.     .     .  19 

British  Honduras  (1921)1     8,592 
Canada  (1921)1      .     .    3,729,665 

Costa  Rica2' 23,000 

Cuba2 44,164 

Dominican  Repub.(1921)1  19,332 


145,000,000 

POPULATION 
53,031 

21,987 

45,317 

8,788,483 " 

463,727 

2,900,000 

897,405 


AREA  POPULATION 

Greenland  (1921)1       .     46,740 l  14,355 

Guatemala2  ....     48,290  2,119,165 

Haiti  (republic)2    .     .     10,200  2,000,000 

Honduras'2     ....     46,250  650,000 

Jamaica  (1921)1.    .     .       4,207  857,921 

Labrador8     ....  120,000  3,647 

Mexico  (1921)1 .     .     .  767,198  14,007,970 

Newfoundland8.     .     .     42,734  263,683 

Nicaragua  (1920)1       .     49,200  638,119 

Panama  (1920)1     .     .     32,380  401,428 

Salvador2 13,176  1,700,000 

United  States(1920y  3,026,789  6  105,710,620s 

SOUTH  AMERICA           7,000,000  60,000,000 

Argentina2  .       .     .     1,153,418  9,000,000 

Bolivia2 514,595  2,820,119 

Brazil  (1920)1    .     .     3,275,510  30,645,296 

British  Guiana  (1921)1    89,480  297,691 

Chile  (1920)'     .     .     .  289,829  3,754,723 

Colombia  (1918)1  .     .  440,846  5,855,077 

Dutch  Guiana8.     .     .     46,060  113,181 

Ecuador2 116,000  2,000,000 

French  Guiana  (1911)1    32,000  49,009 

Paraguay2     ....  196,000  1,000,000 

Peru2 533,916  4,620,000 

Uruguay  (1920)1    .     .     72,153  1,494,953 

Venezuela  (1920)1       .  398,594  2,411,952 


EUROPE 

Albania8  .     .     . 
Austria  (1920)1 
Azerbaijan8  . 
Belgium3. 
Bulgaria  (1920)1 
Czechoslovakia  (19 
Denmark  (1921)1 
England  (1921)1 
Esthonia8 
Finland  (1920)1 
France  (1921)1  . 
Georgia8  .     .     . 
Germany  (1919)1 
Greece  (1920)1  . 
Hungary  (1921)1 
Iceland8   .     .     . 
Ireland  (1911)1 
Italy8  .... 
Jugoslavia3  . 
Latvia  (1920)1  . 
Lithuania      .     . 
Luxemburg3 
Netherlands  (1920) 
Norway  (1920)1 
Poland  (1921)1. 
Portugal  (19  ll)1 
Rumania3 
Russia  (1920)1  . 
Sarre  Basin3 
Scotland  (1921)1 
Spain8.     .     .     . 
Sweden  (1920)1 
Switzerland  (1920) 
Turkev(in  Europe) 
Ukraine  (1920)1 
Wales  (1921)1   . 

ASIA 

Afghanistan8     . 
Arabia8    . 
Aden     .     .     . 


3,900,000         400,000,000 


21)1 


11,000 

30,766 

33,970 

11,744 

40,656 

54,264 

16,609 

.     50,874 

.     23,160 

.  149,586 

.  212,659 

.     25,760 

.  183,381 

.     41,933 

.     35,654 

.     39,709 

.     32,586 

.  117,982 

.     95,628 

.     24,440 

.     31,700 

999 

.     12,582 

.  124,964 

.  149,042 

.     35,490 

.  122,282 

1,488,240 

751 

30,405 

194,783 

173,035 

15,976 

10,882 

172,524 

7,466 


1,400,000 
6,131,445 
2,096,973 
7,684,272 
4,861,439 

13,595,816 
3,267,831 

35,678,530 
1,750,000 
3,367,542 

39,209,766 
2,372,403 

59,857,283 

5,477,077 

7,840,832 

94,690 

4,390,219 

40,070,161 

11,337,686 
1,503,193 
2,671,000 
263,824 
6,841,155 
2,046,306 

26,886,399 
5,957,985 

17,393,149 

93,387,923 

657,870 

4,882,288 

20,783,844 
5,903,762 
3,880,320 
1,891,000 

26,001,802 
2,206,712 


Hejaz8 

Oman8 
Armenia8 
Bhutan8 
Bokhara8 
Ceylon  (1921)1 
China3      .     . 


AREA 
170,000 

82,000 
15,240 
20,000 
79,000 
25,481 
3,913,560 


Dutch  E.Indies(1920)1    683,000 

Java 50,557 

India  (1921)1     .     .       1,802,629 

Burma 230,839 

Baluchistan  (1911)1  134,638 

Federated  Malay  States 3    27,506 

French  Indo-China3  .  310,344 

Japan  (1920)1        .     .  260,738 

Chosen  (Korea)  .     .  84,738 

Taiwan  (Formosa)  13,944 

Khiva3 24,310 

Mesopotamia  (Iraq) 

(1920)1       ....  143,250 

Nepal8 54,000 

Palestine  (1922)1   .     .  9,000 

Persia8      .....  628,000 

Siam3 198,900 

Siberia  (1920)1 .     .     .  4,162,527 

Straits  Settl's  (1921)1.  1,600 

Syria8 60,000 

Transcaspia  ....  235,120 

Turkey  (in  Asia)3    .     .  174,900 

Western  Turkestan3    .  577,400 

AFRICA  11,500,000 

Abyssinia8    ....  350,000 

Algeria  (1921)1      .     .  222,180 
Anglo-Egyptian 

Sudan3       .     .     .     .1,014,400 

Angola8 484,800 

Belgian  Congo3      .     .  909,654 

British  East  Africa3  .  720,360 

Kenya  Colony     .     .  245,060 

Tanganyika  Ter.     .  365,000 

Uganda      ....  110,300 

Egypt8 350,000 

Fr.  Equat.  Africa3 .     .  982,049 
Fr.W.  Africa  (1921)1    1,800,566 

Liberia3 40,000 

Libia3 406,000 

Madagascar8.     .     .     .  228,000 

Morocco8 231,500 

Mozambique1     .     .     .  428,132 

Nigeria3 332,000 

Rhodesia  (1921)1    .     .  440,000 

Somaliland  (Ital.)3      .  139,430 
Southwest  Africa 

(1921  )l      ....  322,400 

Tunis  (1921) !   .     .     .  50,000 
Union  of  South  Africa 

(1921)1      ....  473,089 

AUSTRALIA  AND  NEW 

ZEALAND  3,000,000 


17,000,000         900,000,000 


.  245,000 

1,000,000 

9,000 


6,380,500 

5,500,000 

100,000 


Australia  (1921)1  .     . 

Federal  Territory 

New  South  Wales 

Northern  Territory 

(Queensland    . 

South  Australia 

Tasmania 

Victoria     . 

Western  Australia 
New  Zealand  (1921)1 
Territory  of  Papua8   . 

ANTARCTICA 


2,974,581 

940 

309,432 

523,620 

670,500 

380,070 

26,215 

87,884 

975,920 

103,581 

90,540 

5,000,000 


POPULATION 

900,000 

500,000 

1,214,391 

250,000 

3,000,000 

4,504,283 

436,094,954 

49,161,047 

35,017,204 

319,075,132 

13,205,564 

834,703 

1,315,700 

16,990,229 

77,005,510 

17,284,207 

3,054,398 

519,438 

2,849,282 
5,600,000 

757,182 
9,500,000 
9,121,000 
9,257,825 

881,988 
3,000,000 

552,500 
8,000,000 
7,201,551 

180,000,000 

8,000,000 
5,800,974 

3,400,000 
4,119,000 

19,000,000 
9,701,608 
2,630,000 
4,000,000 
3,071,608 

13,387,000 
9,000,000 

12,283,962 
2,000,000 
1,000,000 
3,545,575 
6,000,000 
3,015,504 

16,250,000 

1,738,000 

650,000 

237,237 
2,093,939 

6,922,813 


7,600,000 

5,436,7'."  1 
2,572 

2,099,763 

3,870 

757,634 

495,336 

213,877 

1,531,529 
332,213 

1,218,270 
251,392 


1  Latest  official  census.        «  Figures  from  the  Pan  American  Union,  1922.      3  Figures  from  the  Statesman's  Year-Book,  1922.        »  Habitable  portion.       'Continental  United  States. 


APPENDIX 


vs. 


CITIES  AND  TOWNS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  HAVING  A  POPULATION  OF  OVER  25,000  IN  1920 


Akron,  O.     .     . 
Alameda,  Calif. 
Albany,  NY.    . 
Allentown,  Pa. 
Altoona,  Pa. 
Amsterdam,  N.Y. 
Anderson,  Ind. 
Asheville,  N.C. 
Atlanta,  Ga. 
Atlantic  City,  N.J. 
Auburn,  N.Y. 
Augusta,  Ga. 
Aurora,  111. 
Austin,  Tex. 
Baltimore,  Md 
Bangor,  Me. 
Battle  Creek,  Mich 
Bay  City,  Mich. 
Bayonne,  N.J. 
Beaumont,  Tex. 
Bellingham,  Wash, 
Berkeley,  Calif. 
Bethlehem,  Pa. 
Binghamton,  N.Y 
Birmingham,  Ala 
Bloomington,  111. 
Boston,  Mass.  . 
Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Brockton,  Mass. 
Brookline,  Mass. 
Buffalo,  N.Y.    . 
Butte,  Mont.     . 
Cambridge,  Mass. 
Camden,  N.J.  . 
Canton,  O.  .     . 
Cedar  Rapids,  la. 
Charleston,  S.  C. 
Charleston,  W.Va 
Charlotte,  N.C 
Chattanooga,  Tenn 
Chelsea,  Mass. 
Chester,  Pa. 
Chicago,  111. 
Chicopee,  Mass 
Cicero,  111.    .     . 
Cincinnati,  O.  . 
Clarksburg,  W.Va 
Cleveland,  O.    . 
Clifton,  N.J.     . 
Colorado  Springs, 
Columbia,  S.  C. 
Columbus,  Ga. 
Columbus,  O.    . 
Council  Bluffs,  la, 
Covington,  Ky. 
Cranston,  R.I. 
Cumberland,  Md. 
Dallas,  Tex. 
Danville,  111.     . 
Davenport,  la. 
Dayton,  O.  .     . 
Decatur,  111. 
Denver,  Colo.    . 
Des  Moines,  la. 
Detroit,  Mich. 
Dubuque,  la.     . 
Duluth,  Minn. 
East  Chicago,  Ind 
East  Cleveland,  O 
Easton,  Pa. 
East  Orange,  N.J, 
East  St.  Louis,  111 


Colo, 


208,435  Elgin,  111.     .     .     . 

28,806  Elizabeth,  N.J.     . 

113,344  Elmira,  N.Y.    .     . 

78,890  El  Paso,  Tex.   .     . 

60,331  Erie,  Pa.       ... 

33,524  Evanston,  111.   .     . 

29,767  Evansville,  Ind.     . 

28,504  Everett,  Mass.  .     . 

200,616  Everett,  Wash.      . 

50,707  Fall  River,  Mass. 

36,192  Fitchburg,  Mass.  . 

52,548  Flint,  Mich.      .     . 

36,397  Fort  Smith,  Ark.  . 

34,876  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

733,826  Fort  Worth,  Tex. 

25,978  Fresno,  Calif.   .     . 

36,164  Galveston,  Tex.     . 

47,554  Gary,  Ind.    .     .     . 

76,754  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

40,422  Green  Bay,  Wis.    . 

25,585  Hagerstown,  Md. 

56,036  Hamilton,  O.    .     . 

54,149  Hammond,  Ind.    . 

66,800  Hamtramck,  Mich. 

178,806  Harrisburg,  Pa.     . 

2S,725  Hartford,  Conn.    . 

748,060  Haverhill,  Mass.    . 

143,555  Hazleton,  Pa.    .     . 

66,254  Highland  Park,  Mich 

37,748  Hoboken,  N.J.      . 

506,775  Holyoke,  Mass.      . 

41,611  Houston,  Tex. 

109,694  Huntington,  W.Va. 

116,309  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

87,091  Irvington,  N  J.     . 

45,566  Jackson,  Mich. 

67,957  Jacksonville,  Fla. 

39,608  Jamestown,  N.Y. 

46,338  Jersey  City,  N.J. 

57,895  Johnstown,  Pa. 

43,184  Joliet,  111 

58,030  Joplin,  Mo.  .     .     . 

2,701,705  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

36,214  Kansas  City,  Kans. 

44,995  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

401,247  Kearny,  N.J.    .     . 

27,869  Kenosha,  Wis.       . 

796,841  Kingston,  N.Y.      . 

26,470  Knoxville,  Tenn.  . 

30,105  Kokomo,  Ind.  .     . 

37,524  La  Crosse,  Wis.     . 

31,125  Lakewood,  O.  .     . 

237,031  Lancaster,  Pa.  .     . 

36,162  Lansing,  Mich. 

57,121  Lawrence,  Mass.    . 

29,407  Lewiston,  Me.  .     . 

29,837  Lexington,  Ky.      . 

i:>S,976  Lima,  O.       .     .     . 

33,776  Lincoln,  Nebr. 

56,727  Little  Rock,  Ark. 

152,559  Long  Beach,  Calif. 

43,818  Lorain,  O.    .     .     . 

256,491  Los  Angeles,  Calif. 

126,468  Louisville,  Ky.       . 

993,678  Lowell,  Mass.    .     . 

39,141  Lynchburg,  Va.     . 

98,917  Lynn,  Mass.      .     . 

35,967  McKeesport,  Pa.    . 

27,292  Macon,  Ga.  .     .     . 

33,813  Madison,  Wis. 

50,710  Maiden,  Mass. 

66,767  Manchester,  N.H. 


27,454  Mansfield,  O.    . 

95,783  Marion,  O.  .     . 

45,393  Medford,  Mass. 

77,560  Memphis,  Tenn. 

102,093  Meriden,  Conn. 

37,234  Miami,  Fla.       . 

85,264  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

40,120  .  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

27,644  Mobile,  Ala.      . 

120,485  Moline,  111.  .     . 

41,029  Montclair,  N.J. 

91,599  Montgomery,  Ala, 

28,870  Mount  Vernon,  N 

86,549  Muncie,  Ind.     . 

106,482  Muskegon,  Mich. 

45,086  Muskogee,  Okla. 

44,255  Nashua,  N.  H.  . 

55,378  Nashville,  Tenn. 

137,634  Newark,  N.J.  . 

31,017  Newark,  O. 

28,064  New  Bedford,  Mass. 

39,675  New  Britain,  Conn. 

36,004  New  Brunswick,  N.J 

48,615  Newburg,  N.Y.      . 

75,917  Newcastle,  Pa. 

138,036  New  Haven,  Conn. 

53,884  New  London,  Conn. 

32,277  New  Orleans,  La. 

46,499  Newport,  Ky.    .     . 

68,166  Newport,  R.I. 

60,203  Newport  News,  Va. 

138,276  New  Rochelle,  N.Y. 

50,177  Newton,  Mass. 

314,194  New  York,  N.Y.    . 

25,480  Niagara  Falls,  N.Y. 

48,374  Norfolk,  Va.     .     . 

91,558  Norristown,  Pa.    . 

38,917  Norwalk,  Conn.     . 

298,103  Oakland,  Calif.      . 

67,327  Oak  Park,  111.       . 

38,442  Ogden,  Utah     .     . 

29,902  Oklahoma  City,  Okla, 

48,487  Omaha,  Nebr. 

101,177  Orange,  N.J.    .     . 

324,410  Oshkosh,  Wis.       . 

26,724  Pasadena,  Calif.    . 

40,472  Passaic,  N.J.    .     . 

26,688  Paterson,  N.J.       . 

77,818  Pawtucket,  R.  I.    . 

30,067  Pensacola,  Fla.      . 

30,421  Peoria,  111.   .     .     . 

41,732  Perth  Amboy,  N.J. 

53,150  Petersburg,  Va.     . 

57,327  Philadelphia,  Pa.  . 

94,270  Phoenix,  Ariz. 

31,791  Pittsburgh,  Pa.      . 

41,534  Pittsfield,  Mass.    . 

41,326  Plainfield,  N.J.     . 

54,948  Pontiac,  Mich.       . 

65,142  Port  Huron,  Mich. 

55,593  Portland,  Me.   .     . 

37,295  Portland,  Oreg.     . 

578,673  Portsmouth,  O. 

234,891  Portsmouth,  Va.   . 

112,759  Poughkeepsie,  N.Y. 

30,070  Providence,  R.  I.    . 

99,148  Pueblo,  Colo.    .     . 

46,781  Quincy,  111.       .     . 

52,995  Quincy,  Mass.  .     . 

38,378  Racine,  Wis.     .     . 

49,103  Reading,  Pa.     .     . 

78,384  Revere,  Mass.  .     . 


27,824  Richmond,  Ind.     . 

27,891  Richmond,  Va.      . 

39,038  Roanoke,  Va.   .     . 

162,351  Rochester,  N.Y.    . 

29,867  Rockford,  111.    .     . 

29,571  Rock  Island,  111.    . 

457,147  Rome,  N.Y.      .     . 

380,582  Sacramento,  Calif. 

60,777  Saginaw,  Mich.     . 

30,734  St.  Joseph,  Mo.     . 

28,810  St.  Louis,  Mo.  .     . 

43,464  St.  Paul,  Minn.     . 

42,726  Salem,  Mass.    .     . 

36,524  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

36,570  San  Antonio,  Tex. 

30,277  San  Diego,  Calif.  . 

28,379  San  Francisco,  Calif 

118,342  San  Jose,  Calif.     . 

414,524  Savannah,  Ga.  .     . 

26,718  Schenectady,  N.Y. 

121,217  Scranton,  Pa.    .     . 

59.316  Seattle,  Wash.       . 
32,779  Sheboygan,  Wis.  . 
30,366  Shreveport,  La. 
44,938  Sioux  City,  la.      . 

162,537  Sioux  Falls,  S.Dak. 

25,688  Somerville,  Mass. 

387,219  South  Bend,  Ind. 

29.317  Spokane,  Wash.    . 
30,255  Springfield,  111.      . 
35,596  Springfield,  Mass. 
36,213  Springfield,  Mo.    . 
46,054  Springfield,  O. 

5,620,048  Stamford,  Conn.    . 

50,760  Steubenville,  O.    . 

115,777  Stockton,  Calif.     . 

32,319  Superior,  Wis.  .     . 

27,743  Syracuse,  N.Y.      . 

216,261  Tacoma,  Wash.     . 

39,858  Tampa,  Fla.      .     . 

32,804  Taunton,  Mass.     . 

91,295  Terre  Haute,  Ind. 

191,601  Toledo,  O.    .     .     . 

33,268  Topeka,  Kans.       . 

33,162  Trenton,  N.J.  .     . 

45,354  Troy,  N.Y.  .     .     . 

63,841  Tulsa,  Okla.     .     . 

135,875  Utica,  N.Y.       .     . 

64,248  Waco,  Tex.       .     . 

31,035  Waltham,  Mass.    . 

76,121  Warren,  O.  .     .     . 

41,707  Washington,  D.C. 

31,012  Waterbury,  Conn. 

1,823,779  Waterloo,  la.    .     . 

29,053  Watertown,  N.Y. 

588,343  West  Hoboken,  N.J, 

41,763  West  New  York,  N. 

27,700  Wheeling,  W.Va. 

34,273  Wichita,  Kans.      . 

25,944  Wichita  Falls,  Tex. 

69,272  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa. 

258,288  Williamsport,  Pa. 

33,011  Wilmington,  Del. 

54,387  Wilmington,  N.C. 

35,000  Winston-Salem,  N.C 

237,595  Woonsocket,  R.I. 

43,050  Worcester,  Mass.  . 

35,978  Yonkers,  N.Y.  .     . 

47,876  York,  Pa.     .     .     . 

58,593  Youngstown,  O.    . 

107,784  Zanesville,  O.   .     . 

28,823 


26,765 

171,667 
50,842 

295,750 
65,651 
35,177 
26,341 
65,908 
61,903 
77,939 

772,897 

234,698 
42,529 

118,110 

161,379 
74,683 

506,676 
39,642 
83,252 
88,723 

137,783 

315,312 
30,955 
43,874 
71,227 
25,202 
93,091 
70,983 

104,437 
59,183 

129,614 
39,631 
60,840 
35,096 
28,508 
40,296 
39,671 

171,717 
96,965 
51,608 
37,137 
66,083 

243,164 

50,022 

119,289 

72,013 

72,075 

94,156 

38,500 

30,915 

27,050 

437,571 

91,715 

36,230 

31,285 

40,074 

29,926 

56,208 

72,217 

40,079 

73,833 

36,198 

110,168 

33,372 

48,395 

43,496 

179,754 

100,176 

47,512 

132,358 

29,569 


APPENDIX 


POPULATION  OF  PRINCIPAL  FOREIGN  CITIES 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Canada  (1921)  > 
Calgary  . 
Edmonton 
Halifax    . 
Hamilton 
London    . 
Montreal 
Ottawa    . 
Quebec    . 
St.  John  . 
Toronto  . 
Vancouver 
Victoria  . 
Winnipeg 

Central  America2 
Guatemala  . 
Leon  . 
Panama  . 
San  Jos£ 
San  Salvador 
Tegucigalpa 

Mexico  (1921)  > 
Guadalajara 
Mexico    . 


West  Indies 
Camagtiey1  . 
Cienfuegos 1 
Habana : 
Kingston 1    . 
Port  au  Prince  2 
San  Juan 1    .     . 
Santiago  de  Cuba 


Population 

63,305 

58,821 

58,372 

114,151 

60,959 

618,506 

107,843 

95,193 

47,166 

521,893 

117,217 

38,727 

179,087 

125,000 
47,234 
65,000 
50,765 
80,000 
40,000 

119,468 
615,367 

98,193 
95,865 

363,506 
62,562 

101,133 
71,443 
70,232 


SOUTH  AMERICA 
Argentina2 

Buenos  Aires    .     .     .  1,692,327 

Cdrdoba 135,000 

Rosario 250,000 

Bolivia2 

La  Paz 107,000 

Sucre 29,500 

Brazil  (1920) » 

Belem  (Para)  .     .     .  236,402 

Recife  (Pernambuco)  238,843 

Rio  de  Janeiro       .     .  1,157,873 

Sao  Paulo     ....  579,033 

Sao  Salvador  (Bahia)  283,422 

Chile  (1920) ] 

Santiago 507,296 

Valparaiso   ....  182,242 

Colombia  (1918) » 

Barranquilla     .     .     .  64,543 

Bogota 143,994 

Ecuador2 

Guayaquil    ....  100,000 

Quito 90,000 

Guiana 

Cayenne1     ....  13,527 

Georgetown 1    .     .     .  53,422 

Paramaribo8     .     .     .  50,560 

Paraguay2 

Asuncion      ....  90,000 

Peru2 

Arequipa      ....  55,000 

Callao 47,171 

Lima 176,467 

1  Latest  official  census. 


Uruguay  (1920) » 
Montevideo  . 

Venezuela  (1920)  > 
Caracas   .     . 
Maracaibo    . 


Population 
.      361,950 

92,212 
46,706 


Ireland 


EUROPE 
Austria  (1920) l 

Cratz 157,644 

Vienna 1,841,326 

Balkan  States 

Athens1 300,701 

Constantinople3      .     .  1,000,000 

Saloniki1      ....  170,195 

Sofia1 154,431 

Baltic  States 
Kovno8   . 
Reval8     .     .     . 
Riga1      .     .     . 

Belgium 3 
Antwerp  . 
Brussels  . 
Ghent      .     .     . 
Liege  .... 

Czechoslovakia  (1921) J 
Bratislava    . 
Briinn      . 
Pilsen 
Prague    .... 

Denmark  (1921) » 

Copenhagen 
Finland' 

Helsingfors       .     . 
France  (1921) « 

Bordeaux 

Lille    .     . 

Lyon  . 

Marseille 

Nantes    . 

Paris  . 

Toulouse 


Free  City  of  Danzig3 
Danzig     .     . 


90,300 
160,000 
185,137 

333,882 
684,870 
165,910 
165,117 

93,329 
221,122 

88,447 
676,476 

561,344 

188,922 

267,409 
200,952 
561,592 
586,341 
183,704 
!,906,472 
175,434 

194,953 
49,806 


Free  State  of  Fiume3    . 

Germany  (1919) 1 

Berlin 3,801,235 

Cologne 633,904 

Dresden 529,326 

Hamburg     ....  985,779 

Leipzig 604,380 

Munich 630,711 

Great  Britain  (1921)1 


Birmingham 
Bradford 
Bristol 
Cardiff     .     . 
Dundee    .     . 
Edinburgh   . 
Glasgow  .     . 
Leeds . 
Liverpool 
London    . 
Manchester  . 
Sheffield  .     . 

Hungary  (1921)  i 
Budapest 


919,438 
285,979 
377,061 
200,262 
168,217 
420,281 

1,034,069 
458,320 
803,118 

4,483,249 
730,551 
490,724 


1,184,616 


POPULATION 

Belfast 393,000 

Dublin 399,000 


Italy  (1915) » 

Catania  .... 
Florence  .... 
Genoa  .... 
Milan  .... 
Naples  .... 
Palermo  .... 

Rome 

Turin  .... 
Venice     .... 

Jugoslavia  3 

Belgrade .... 
Zagreb     .... 

Netherlands  (1920)  * 
Amsterdam .     .     . 
Rotterdam    . 
The  Hague  . 

Norway  and  Sweden  (1920) l 

Bergen 

Christiania  .... 
Goteborg  .... 
Stockholm    .... 

Poland  (1921) > 

Krakow  .... 
Lemberg 

Lodz 

Warsaw  .... 


217,389 
242,147 
300,139 
663,059 
697,917 
345,891 
590,960 
451,994 
168,038 

120,000 
80,000 

652,655 
516,264 
365,297 

91,443 
258,483 
202,366 
419,429 

181,700 
219,193 
451,813 
931,176 


Portugal3 

Lisbon 489,667 

Oporto 203,981 

Rumania 3 

Bucharest     ....  308,987 

Russia  (1920) « 

Moscow 1,028,218 

Petrograd     ....  705,908 

Spain  (1920)  I 

Barcelona     ....  710,335 

Madrid 751,352 

Valencia 243,783 

Switzerland  (1920)  * 

Basel 135,976 

Geneva         ....  135,059 

Zurich 207,161 

Ukraine  (1920)  > 

Kiev 365,737 

Odessa 434,857 


ASIA 


Central  Asia3 
Bokhara 
Khiva 
Tashkend 


75,000 

4,500 

272,300 


China3 

Canton 1,367,000 

Hankow 289,804 

Peking 1,300,000 

Shanghai      ....  1,538,500 
Tientsin 838,629 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Batavia 234,697 

Surabaya      ....      160,801 


French  Indo-China3 

Hanoi 
Saigon 

India  {1921)1 
Bombay  . 
Calcutta  . 
Delhi  .  . 
Hyderabad 
Lucknow 
Madras  . 
Rangoon 

Japan  (1920) « 
Keijo  (Seoul) 
Kobe  . 
Kyoto 
Nagoya    . 
Osaka 
Tokyo 
Yokohama 

Philippine  Islands  (1921) ' 

Manila 

Siam  (1918)  • 

Bangkok  .  .  .  . 
Siberia 

Irkutsk  1 

Omsk1     .  .     .     . 

Tomsk 

Uralsk 


Southwest  Asia 
Aleppo8  . 
Bagdad * . 
Damascus 3 
Erzerum 
Jerusalem  8 
Medina  8  . 
Mekka8  . 
Smyrna    . 
Teheran 3 

Straits  Settlements 
Singapore     . 


AFRICA 


Alexandria l 
Algiers1  .     . 
Cairo a 
Cape  Town ' 
Durban 1 
Fez1    .     .     . 
Freetown '    . 
Johannesburg 
Kimberley l . 
Monrovia 3    . 
Port  Said »   . 
Tananarivo ' 
Tangier 8 
Tripoli1  .     . 
Tunis 1     .     . 


Population 
90,303 
72,372 

1,172,953 
1,263,292 
303,148 
404,225 
243,553 
522,951 
339,527 

302,686 
608,644 
591,324 
429,997 
1,252,983 
2,173,201 
422,942 

285,306 

931,171 

103,920 
144,525 
116,664 

47,880 

250,000 

250,000 

250,000 

80,000 

64,000 

10,00(1 

70,000 

375,000 

220,000 

193,089 


444,617 

206,595 

790,939 

206,558 

140,324 

62,693 

34,090 

284,191 

39,320 

6,000 

91,090 

63,115 

50,000 

73,000 

170,881 


AUSTRALIA  AND  NEW  ZEALAND 


Australia  (1921)  > 
Adelaide . 
Brisbane .     . 
Melbourne    . 
Sydney    . 

New  Zealand  (1921 
Auckland 
Wellington  . 


255,318 
209,699 
784,000 
897,640 


157,757 
107,488 


«  Figures  from  the  Pan-American  Union,  1922. 


3  Figures  from  the  Statesman's  Year-Book,  1922. 


Key:  ale,  at,  care,  senate,  ask,  arm,  final,  all;  eve,  end,  her,  event,  recent;  Ice,  111,  admiral;  old,  On,  for,  6bey,  anchor;  use,  Op,  filr,  unite,  awful;  food,  foot; 
ch  as  in  chop ;  g  as  in  go ;  ng  as  in  sing ;  n  as  in  ink ;  th  as  in  thin ;  th  as  in  the ;  n  as  in  banyan ;  oi  as  in  oil ;  ow  as  in  cow ;  N  nearly  like  ng  in  sing  (French  nasal) ; 
k  like  German  ch ;  ii  as  in  German  grim ;  tQ  as  in  nature. 

Note.  Map  references  are  given  thus:  (171,  F3).  The  number  in  italic  type,  171,  =  the  map  page;  F3  =  the  letter  and  number  on  the  margins  of  the  map. 
The  F  refers  to  the  area  between  two  meridians  of  longitude,  and  the  3  refers  to  the  area  between  two  parallels  of  latitude.  The  letter  and  the  figure  are  to  be 
used  as  guides  in  locating  the  place.   The  abbreviation  App.  =  Appendix.   Stars  draw  attention  to  text  under  pictures  and  black  and  white  maps;  for  example,  92*. 


Aar  River  ar  (182,  K  5) 

abaca  a-ba-ka'  92*,  94 

Aberdeen,  Scotland  ab-gr-den'  166*, 

168  (171,  F  3) 
Aberdeen,  S.  D.  54  (55,  D  3) 
Absaroka  Range  ab-sa-ro'ka  (73,  K  3) 
Abu  Hamed  a'boo  ha'ined  (227,  G  3) 
Abyssinia  ab-l-sln'l-a  217,  229  (227, 

G4) 
Abyssinian  Highlands  220  (218,  G  3) 
Acajutla  a-ka-hoot'la  (118,  G  5) 
Acapulco  a-ka-p6oTk5  (118,  E  4) 
Aconcagua,  Mt.  a-kSn-ka'gwa  127*, 

App.  iv  (145,  C  6) 
Acropolis  a-kr5p'6-lls  214* 
Adelaide  ad'S-lad  257,  262  (260,  D5) 
Aden  a'den  168,  238  (250,  C  7) 
Aden,  Gulf  of  223  (232,  C  7) 
Adirondack   Mts.    ad-j-ron'dak    26, 

36  (35,  E 1) 
Adis  Abeba  a'dis  a-ba'ba  (227,  G  4) 
Adrianople  ad-rl-an-6'p'l  (209,  J  2) 
Adriatic    Sea    a-dre'-atlk    162,   212 

(161,  H7) 
.ffigean  Sea  e"-je'an  235  (161,  K  8) 
Afghanistan  af-gari-Is-tan'  239  (250, 

E5) 
Africa  af'ri-ka    217-230  (218,  227, 

230,  opp."  230) 
Agana  a-giin'ya  (93,  G  2) 
Agra  a'gra  (250,  F  6) 
agriculture  15,  48,  57,  68,  106,  174, 

178,   181,    191,    194,    196,   243, 

248,  278-283 
Akkra  ak'ra  (227,  C  4) 
Akron  ak'ron  300  (45,  G  4) 
Alabama  ai-a-ba'ma  22  (23) 
Alameda  ai-a-ma'da  (76,  B  3) 
Alaska  a-las;ka  83^86,  286,  291  (84) 
Alaska  Range  (122,  C  4) 
Albania  ai-ba'nl-a  203, 213  (209,  H  2) 
Albany  61'ba-nl  31  (35,  F  2) 
Albemarle  Sound  ai'bS-marl  (23,  J 1) 
Alberta  ai-ber'ta  104  106,  108  (107) 
Albuquerque  ai-bu-kur'ke  77(76,  K4) 
Aleppo  a-lep'O  (237,  D  3) 
Aleutian  Islands  a-lu'shan  85  (122, 

D3) 
Aleutian  Range  (122,  D  4) 
Alexandria  al-€g-zan'dri-a  222  ( 

Fl) 

alfalfa  al-faTfa  53,  57,  70* 
Algeria  Sl-je'rI-a  186,  226  (227,  D  1) 
Algiers  Sl-jeTz'  226*  (227,  D  1) 
Allegheny  River  ai'e-ga-ni  32, 33*  (3, 

L2) 
Allentown  299  (35,  E  3) 
Almaden  al-ma-than'  (208,  C  3) 
alpaca  ai-pak'a  141,  143 
Alps  alps  160, 180, 187,  207  (161,  G  6) 
Alsace  ai-sas'  186*  (182,  K  4) 
Altai  Mts.  al-ti'  (232,  G  4) 
altitude,  zones  of  112,  114 
aluminum  a-lu'mi-num  134 
Amazon  Lowlands  am'a-zon  128, 131 

(126) 
Amazon  River  130  (126,  D  3) 
Amboina  am-boi'na  (260,  C  2) 
"American    Mediterranean"     100, 

115,  301 
Amiens  a-ml-ax'  181  (182,  H  4) 
Amstel  River  am'stgl  177 
Amsterdam  am'ster-dam   177  (171, 

K5) 
Amu  River  a-moo'  (232,  E  4) 


Amur  River  a-moor'  241,  243 

M4) 

Anaconda  an-a-k5n'da  57  (73,  H  2) 
Anatolia  an-a-to'11-a  235  (237,  C  3) 
Anatolia,  Plateau  of  233  (232,  B  6) 
Andes  Mts.  an'dez  127  (126,  B  4) 
Andorra  an-dir'ra  203  (208,  D  2) 
Androscoggin  River   an-drps-kogrn 

8  (13,  E  4) 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  sod-dan'  169, 

222  (227,  F  3) 
Angola  an-g6la  229  (227,  E  6) 
Angora  an-g6'ra  235  (237,  C  3) 
animal  life,  Africa,  221 ;  India,  252 ; 

South  America,  128,  141 
Ann,  Cape  8  (13,  E  6) 
Annapolis  a-nap'6-lis  34  (35,  D  4) 
Ansonia  an-so'nl-a  9  (13,  B  7) 
antarctic     circle  "  ant-ark'tik    270, 

271* 
Antarctic  Ocean  App.  v  (opp.  266) 
Antarctica   ant-ark'tl-ka    257   (opp. 


Antilles,  Greater  and  Lesser  an-til'ez 

(119) 
Antioch  an'tl-5k  (2 37,  D  3) 
Antofagasta  aii-t6-f a-gas'ta  142  (145, 

B5) 
Antwerp  ant'werp  178,  179*  (171, 

K6) 
Apennine  Mts.  ap'e-nin  160, 207, 210, 

211  (161,  H  7) 
Appalachian     Highlands     Sp-a-la'- 

chl-an  5,  26,  103  (122) 
Appalachian  Mts.  26,  29,  36  (3,  K  3 ; 

21) 
Appalachian  Plateau  (3) 
Arabia  a-ra'bl-a  235,  238  (250,  C  6) 
Arabian  Plateau  233,  235  (232,  C  6) 
Arabs  ar'abz  217,  220*,  236,  238 
Aral  Sea  ar'al  (2 32,  D  4) 
Ararat,  Mt.  ar'a-rat  App.  iv  (250, 

C5) 
Arbuckle  Mts.  ar'buck'l  38  (2-3,  G  4) 
Archangel  ark-an'jgl  200  (201,  H  2) 
arctic  circle  ark'tlk  270,  271* 
Arctic  Coastal  Plain  86  (122,  B  4) 
Arctic  Ocean   104,  163,  173,  App.  v 

(opp.  266) 
Ardennes  Mts.  ar-dgn'  (182,  J  4) 
Arequipa  a-rft-ke'pS  140  (135,  B  4) 
Argentina  ar-jen-te'na  144,  148-152 

(145) 
Argonne  ar-gin'  (182,  J  4) 
Arica  a-re'ka  (135,  B  4) 
Arizona  ar-I-zo'na  67,  77,  290  (76) 
Arkansas  ar'kan-sa  18,  24,  38  (25) 
Arkansas  River  24,  38  (25,  J  2) 
Aries  arlz  (182,  J  7) 
Armenia  ar-me'nl-a  200  (201,  J  7) 
Armenians  200,  235,  236  (208,  F  2) 
Arno  River  ar'no  (208,  F  2) 
asbestos  as-bgs'tgs  104 
Ashanti  a-shan'te-  (227,  C  4) 
Asia  a'slia  231-256  (232,  237,  247, 

250,  256,  opp.  256) 
Asir  a-ser/  (236,  E  7) 
Askabad  as'ka-bad  (250,  D  5) 
Asmara  as-ma'ra  (227,  G  3) 
asphalt  as'fait  120 
Assiniboine  River  a-sinl-boin  (122, 

D9) 
Astoria  as-to'ri-a  78  (73,  C  2) 
Astrakhan  5s-tra-kan'  200  (201,  J  5) 
Asunci6n  a-soon-syon'  153  (145,  D  5) 


Aswan  as-swan'  (227,  G  2) 

Aswan  Dam  223 

Atacama  Desert  a-ta-ka'ma  6,  144, 

146  (126,  C  5) 
Atbara  River  at'ba-ra  (218,  G  3) 
Athabaska,  Lake  ath-a-bas'ka  (107, 

D4) 
Athens  ath'enz  214  (209,  H  3) 
Atlanta  at-lan'ta  22  (23,  E  3) 
Atlantic  City  34  (35,  E  4) 
Atlantic  Coastal  Plain  14  (2-3) 
Atlantic  Ocean    100,    272,   App.  v 

(275) 
Atlas  Mts.  220,  225,  226  (218,  C  1) 
atolls  a-tSlz'  264 
Auburn  a'bfirn  8  (13,  E  4) 
Auckland  ak'land  263  (260,  H  5) 
Augsburg  owkVbdork  (183,  M  4) 
Augusta,  Ga.  a-gus'ta  17, 22  (23,  G  3) 
Augusta,  Me.  8  (13,  F  4) 
Austin  as'tln  24  (25,  F  4) 
Australia  as-tra'H-a    257-262   (258, 

260,  265,  opp.  265) 
Austria  fis'tri-a  159,  193  (183,  N  5) 
Austrian  Gate  6s'tri-an  193 
automobiles  6-t6-mo'bIlz  42*,  43 
Azerbaijan   a-z6r-bi-jan'    200    (201, 

J  6) 
Azores  Islands  a-z5rz'  206  (227,  A 1) 
Azov,  Sea  of  a'z6f  (201,  G  5) 

Bab-el-Mandeb,    Strait    of    bab-«l- 

man'deb  or  bab-61-man'deb  217, 

228  (232  C  7) 
Babylon  bab''i-16n  236  (237,  E  4) 
Bad  Lands  58 

Baffin  Bay  bafln  (122,  B  13) 
Bagdad  bag-dad'  236  (250,  C  5) 
Bahama  Islands  ba-ha'ma  115,  117 

(122,  G  12) 
Bahia  ba-6'a,  see  Sao  Salvador 
Bahia  Blanca  blan'ka  148,  151  (145, 

C6) 
Bahr  el  Jebel  ba'h'r  el  jgb'gl   (227, 

G4) 
Baikal,  Lake  bi-kal'  (232,  J  3) 
Bakersfield  75*  (76,  D  4) 
Baku  ba-koo'  200  (201,  J  6) 
Balboa  bal-b5'a  89  (119,  J  6) 
Balearic  Islands  bai-e-artk  205  (208, 

D3) 
Balkan  Mts.  bal-kan'  or  bol'kan  214 

(161,  K  7) 
Balkan  Peninsula  160, 203  (161.  K  7) 
Balkash,  Lake  bal-kash'  (250,  F  4) 
Ballarat  bal-a-rat'  (260,  E  5) 
Baltic  Lowland  bal'tlk  170, 172  (161, 

J  3) 
Baltic  Sea  170,  172,  190  (161,  J  4) 
Baltic  States  197  (201,  V  3) 
Baltimore  bal'tl-m6r  17, 33  (35,  D  4) 
Baluchistan  ba-loo-eM-stan'  254  (250, 

E6) 
Banana,  Africa  ba-na'na  222 

E5) 
bananas  114 

Bangkok  ban-koV  251  (250,  J  7) 
Bangor  ban'g6r  8  (13,  G  4) 
Banka  ban'ka  (258,  A  2) 
Barbados  bar-ba'doz  (119,  N5) 
Barcelona  bar-se-lS'na  205  (208,  D  2) 
Barge  Canal  31~  34,  296  (21) 
Bar  Harbor  11*  (13,  G  4) 
Barka,  Plateau  of  barTsa  (218,  F  1) 
barley  49,  71,  159,  172 


Barmen  bar'men  (182,  K  3) 
Barranquilla      bar-ran-kel'ya      138 

(135,  B  1) 
Barre  bar-*  9  (13,  C  4) 
Barrow,  Point  bar'o  86  (122,  B  4) 
Basel  ba'zel  188  (208,  E  1) 
Basra  bas'ra  (250,  C  5) 
Basutoland  ba-so6'to-iand  223  (227, 

F7) 
Batavia  ba-ta'vl-a  255  (260,  A  2) 
Baton  Rouge  bat'un  roozh'  17  (25, 

J4) 
Batum  ba-toom'  200  (237,  E  2) 
Bay  City  44  (45,  F  3) 
Bay  of  Fundy  fun'dl  103  (107,  H  5) 
Bechuanaland  b6k-u-an'a-iand  169, 

223  (227,  F  7) 
Bedford  bgd'f 6rd  43  (45,  T>  5) 
Beira  b6'*-ra  (227,  G  6) 
Beirut  ba'root'  (236,  D  4) 
Belem  bi.-Ks'  132,  143  (135,  E  3) 
Belfast,  Ireland  b81-fast'  168,  169* 

(171,  E  4) 
Belfort  bel-f or'  (182,  K  5) 
Belgian  Congo  178,  229  (227,  F  5) 
Belgium  beTji-um  177-178  (171,  K  6) 
Belgrade  bgl-grad'  213  (209,  H  2) 
Belize  bg-lez'  (118,  G  4) 
Belleisle,  Strait  of  bel-Il'  110  (107, 

J  4) 
Bellingham  bfillng-ham  78  (73,  C  1) 
Benares  ben-a'rgz  252*  (250,  G  6) 
Bendigo  b6n'dl-g5  (260,  E  5) 
Bengal,   Bay  of  b6n-g61'  249  (250, 

G7) 
Ben  Nevis  ne'vls  158*  (171,  E  3) 
Bergen  bfir'ggn  173  (171,  K  1) 
Bering  Sea  bg'rlng  86  (122,  D  2) 
Bering  Strait  86,  273  (122,  C  3) 
Berkeley  bfirk'll  77  (76,  B  3) 
Berkshire  Hills  burk'shlr  12 
Berlin  bfir-lln'  189*,  192  (183,  N  2) 
Bermuda  Islands  bgr-mu'da  120, 169 

(122,  F  13) 
Bern  bgrn  188  (208,  E  1) 
Bessarabia  bgs-a-ra'bl-a  (201,  E  5) 
Bethlehem,    Palestine    b8th'14-li6m 

236* 
Bethlehem,  Pa.  26*  (35,  E  3) 
Bhutan  boo-tan'  254  (250,  H  6) 
Biddeford  bid'^-fgrd  8  (13,  E  5) 
Big  Sioux  River  soo  54  (55,  E  3) 
Bilbao  bll-ba'6  (208,  C  2) 
Billings  billngz  57  (73,  K  3) 
Billiton  bll-i-t8n'  (258,  A  2) 
Bingham  bing-am  68  (76,  G  1) 
Binghamton  bing'am-tun  (35,  E  2) 
Birmingham,  Ala.  bur'ming-am  22, 

29,  37*,  41,  289  (23,  D  3)" 
Birmingham,  Eng.  167  (171,  G  5) 
Bisbee  blz'bS  68  (76,  H  6) 
Biscay,  Bay  of  blsTd  204  (208,  C  2) 
Bismarck  biz'mark  54  (55,  C  2) 
Bismarck      Archipelago      bis'mark 

(258,  E  2) 
Black  Forest  191  (161,  G  6) 
Black  Hills  58,  293  (2,  F  2) 
Black  Sea  198  (161,  M  7) 
Blanc,    Mont    m&s    bias'   or   mont 

blank  App.  iv  (161,  G  6) 
Blanca  Peak  blan'ka  (76,  L  3) 
blizzard  53 

Blue  Grass  Country  40,  48 
Blue  Mts.,  Australia  257  (258,  E  5) 
Blue  Mts.,  Oregon  66  (2,  C  1) 


Xll 


INDEX  AND  PRONUNCIATIONS 


Blue  Ridge  Mts.  86  (23,  F  2) 
Bogota  bo-gft-ta'  138  (135,  B  2) 
Bohemia,  Plateau  of  bb-he'ml-a  195 

(161,  H  6) 
Bbhmer  Wald  bu'mgr  valt  (1SS,  N  4) 
Bohol  Island  b*-h6T  (93,  E  6) 
Boise  boi'za  or  boi'se-  72  (73,  F  4) 
Bokhara  b6-Ka'rii  239  (250,  E  5) 
Bolivia  bS-lIvl-a  142-143  (135) 
Bolivia,  Plateau  of  142  (126,  C4) 
Boma  bo'ma  (227,  E  5) 
Bombay  bom-ba'  252»,  253  (250,  F  7) 
Bonn  bfjn  190*  (182,  K  3) 
Bonneville,  Lake  bon'vil  77 
Boothia  Pen.  boo'thi-a  (107,  E  2) 
borax  bO'raks  68 

Bordeaux  bor-d5'  184,  185  (182,  F  6) 
Borneo  b&r'ne-5  168,  255  (250,  K  8) 
Bosporus  bSs'pd-rus  215,  233*  (161, 

L7) 
Boston  bos'tun  8,  9*  (IS,  D  6) 
Boston  Mts.  38  (3,  H  3) 
Botafogo  Bay  bo-ta-f6'go  132*,  133* 
Bothnia,  Gulf  of  both'nl-a  197  (201, 

C2) 
Boulogne  boo-lon'y'  (Fr.)  181  (182, 

G  3);  (Eng.  pron.  boo-lCn') 
Bradford  brad'fgrd  166  (171,  G  5) 
Brahmanism  bra'man-Iz'  m  252 
Brahmaputra    River   bra-ma-poo'tra 

233,  253  (232,  H  6) 
Bratislava  bra'te-sla-va  (183,  P  4) 
Brazil  bra-zll'  130-133,  144  (135) 
Brazilian  Highlands  127  (126) 
Brazos  River  bra'zSs  (25,  F  4) 
Bremen    brfim'en   or   bra'mgn    189, 

192  (171,  M  5) 
Brenner  Pass  bren'Sr  (208,  F  1) 
Breslau  bres'low  192  (183,  P  3) 
Brest  brest  (182,  D  4) 
Brest-Litovsk  brest'lye-tofsk'  (1S3, 

T2) 
bricks  43,  294 

Bridgeport  brlj'port  8  (13,  B  7) 
Brindisi  bren'de"-ze  (209,  G  2) 
Brisbane  briz'ban  262  (260,  F  4) 
British  Columbia  108  (107,  B  4) 
British  Commonwealth  164-169;  see 

also  names  of  dominions 
British    East  Africa    223    (227,   G 

4-5) 
British  Guiana,  see  Guiana 
British   Honduras   hon-doo'ras    114 

(118,  G  4) 
British  Isles  164-168  (161) 
Brittany,  Peninsula  of  brit'a-nl  158 

(182,  E  5) 
Brittany,  Upland  of  180  (161,  E  6) 
Brockton  brok'tun  9  (13,  D  6) 
Brooklyn  brook'lln  30  (35,  F  3) 
Bruges  broo'jez  166,  178*  (170,  J  6) 
Briinn  briin  195  (183,  P  4) 
Brusa  broo'sa  (236,  B  2) 
Brussels    brus'glz    177*,    178,    179* 

(171,  K  6) 
Bucharest  boo-ka-rgst'  202  (209,  J  2) 
Budapest  boo'da-pest  194  (183,  It  5) 
Buddhists  boodlsts  245 
Buenaventura        bwa-na-ven-too'ra 

138  (135,  B  2) 
Buenos    Aires    bwa'nSs    I'ras    151 

(145,  D  6) 
Buffalo  34,  41,  46*,  47  (35,  C  2) 
Bug  River  boog  (201,  D  4) 
building  materials  5,  43,  165,  294 
Bukowina  boo-kS-ve'na  (183,  U  5) 
Bulgaria  bool-ga'rl-a  214  (209,  H  2) 
Burlington  buriing-ton  8  (13,  B  4) 
Burma  bur'ma  249,  254  (250,  H  6) 
Bushire  b5o-sher'  (237,  G  5) 
Bushmen  219 
Butte  but  57,  60,  72,  291  (73,  H  2) 

cacao  ka-ka'6  or  ka-ka'5  120 

Cadiz    ka'theth    (Span.)    204   (208, 

B3);  (Eng.  pron.  ka'dlz) 
Cairo,  Egypt  ki'r5  222*  (227,  G  1) ; 

(U.  S.  city,  ka'ro) 


Calais,  France   kai'a  or  ka-16'   181 

(182,  G3);  (U.  S.  city,  kal'is) 
Calcutta  kal-kut'a  253  (250,  G  6) 
Calgary  kal'ga-ri  (107,  C  4) 
California  kaf-I-fer'nl-a   67,  71,  74, 

77  (76) 
California,  Gulf  of  111  (122,  G  8) 
Callao  kal-ya'6  140  (135,  B  4) 
Calumet  Ul'u-mgt  (45,  C  1) 
Camagiiey  ka-ma-gwa'  (119,  3  8) 
Cambridge  kam'brlj  9  (13,  D  6) 
Camden  kam'den  34  (35,  E  4) 
camels  219*,  221*,  222* 
Cameroons   kam-6-roonz'  228 

E4) 
camphor  249 

Canada  kan'a-da  103-109  (107) 
Canal  du  Midi  ka-nal'dii  mS-de'  (182, 

H7) 
canals  14*,  42,  78,  88, 168, 177*,  178, 

189,  198,  217,  296 
Canal  Zone  88,  89*  (119,  J  6) 
Canary   Islands    ka-na'ri    205,   229 

(218,  B  2) 
Canberra  kan'b6r-a  261  (258,  E  5) 
Cancer,  tropic  of  269,  271* 
Cantabrian  Mts.   kan-ta'bri-an   204 

(161,  D  7) 
Canton,   China   kan-ton'   244   (250, 

K6);  (U.S.  city,  kan'ton) 
Cape  Breton  Island  brgt'gn  or  brit'on 

103  (122,  E  13) 
Cape  Cod  Canal  14*  (13,  E  7) 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  224  (227,  F  8) 
Cape-to-Cairo  Railroad  225 
Cape  Town  224  (227,  E  8) 
Cape  Verde  Islands  v6rd  229  (218, 

A3) 
Capricorn,  tropic  of  kap'ri-korn  269, 

271* 
Caracas  ka-ra'kas  137  (135,  C  1) 
Cardiff  kar'dif  (171,  F  6) 
Caribbean  Sea  kar-I-be'an   100,  272 

(122,  H  12) 
Carpathian  Mts.  kar-pa'thi-an  160, 

194,  195,  202  (161,  K  6)~ 
Carrara  kar-ra'ra  210*,  211  (183,  M  6) 
Carson  City  kar'sim  68  (76,  D  2) 
Cartagena  kar-ta-je'na  (135,  B  1) 
Cascade  Mts.  kas-kad;  80  (2,  B  2) 
Casiquiare  River  ka-s£-kya'ra  (135, 

C  2) 
Casper  kas'pgr  72  (73,  L  4) 
Caspian  Sea  kas'pl-an  198  (161,  P  7) 
caste  252 

Catskill  Mts.  kats'kil  (3,  M  2) 
cattle  56,  60,  131,  137,  147,  148,  283, 

App.  iv 
Cauca  River  kow'ka  (126,  B  2) 
Caucasus    Mts.   ka'ka-sus    160,   198 

(161,  O  7) 
Cayenne  ka-en'  136  (135,  D  2) 
Cayuga  Lake  ka-yoo'ga  (35,  D  2) 
Cebu  Island  sa-boo'  (93,  D  5) 
Cedar  Rapids  54  (55,  H  4) 
Celebes  sel'£-bez  (258,  C  2) 
Cenis,  Mont  mos'  s6-ne'  (208,  E 1) 
Central  America  114  (118-119) 
Central  Highlands  (Europe)  159  (161, 

F6) 
Central  Plains 
Canada  105 
Europe  158-159  (161) 
North  America  (122) 
United  States  39 
Central  States  (Eastern)  44  (45) 
Central  States  (Western)  54  (55) 
Cerro  de  Pasco  sfir'ro  da  pas'ks  141 

(135,  B  4) 
Cetinje  tset'e-n-ya  (209,  G  2) 
Ceylon  se-15n'  234,  254  (250,  G  8) 
Chaco  cha'ko  149, 152 
Chad,  Lake  chad  (227,  E  3) 
Chagres  River  cha'gres  88,  89* 
chalk  165 
Champlain,   Lake   sham-plan'    5,  8 

(13,  B  4) 
Channel  Islands  (171,  F  7) 


Charleston,  S.C.  charlz'tun  17,  22, 

303*  (23,  H  3) 
Charleston,  West  Va.  S4  (35,  B  4) 
Charlotte  sharlot  22  (23,  G  2) 
Charlottetown  (107,  H  5) 
Chattahoochee  River  chat^a-hoo'che" 

(23,  E  4) 
Chattanooga   chat-a-n6o'ga   22   (23, 

E2) 
Chaudiere  Falls  sh5-dyar/  106 
Chautauqua   Lake   sha-td'kwa    (34, 

C2) 
Chelyuskin,  Cape  chei-yoos'kin  (250, 

Jl) 
Chemnitz  kgm'mts  (183,  N  3) 
Chemung  River  sh^-mung'  (35,  D  2) 
Chengtu  chving-too'  (250,  J  5) 
Cherbourg  sher-boor'  (182,  F  4) 
Chesapeake  Bay  ches'a-pek  17, 18  (3, 

L3) 
Cheyenne  shi-en'  57  (73,  M  5) 
Chicago  shi-k8'go  42,  43,  44,  47,  50, 

51*,  52*  (45,  D  4) 
Chicago  River  43,  46 
Chihli,  Gulf  of  che'le'  (247,  G  5) 
Chile  che'la  142,  144  (145) 
Chilkoot  Pass  chil'koot  83*  (S4,  L  2) 
Chimborazo,  Mt.  chim-bo-ra'zo  128*, 

App.  iv  (126,  B  3) 
China  81,  231,  242-245  (250) 
China,  Plain  of  233,  242  (232,  K  5) 
Chinkiang  chin-kyang'  (247,  G  6) 
Chita  che--ta'  (247,  F2) 
Chosen  cho-s6n'  246,  249  (250,  L  5) 
Christchurch  krist'church  263  (260, 

H6) 
Christiania  krls-ti-a'ne-a  173  (201, 

B3) 
Chungking  choong'klng'  (250,  J  6) 
Cincinnati  sin-si-natl  44, 48  (45,  E  5) 
Ciudad  Bolivar  svoo-thatii'  b6-le'var 

137  (135,  C  2) 
clays  43,  294 

Cleveland  klev'land  46*,  47  (45,  G  4) 
Clifton,  Arizona  68  (76,  J  5) 
climate 
Asia  234 ;  see  also  text  on  different 

countries 
Australia  259,  261 

New  Guinea  262 

New  Zealand  263 
Europe  163 ;  see  also  text  on  differ- 
ent countries 
North  America 

Canada  103 

Central  America  114 

Mexico  111 

United  States  and  Possessions 
6,  14,  29,  39,  53,  65,  66,  71, 
83,  87,  90,  91,  92,  95 

West  Indies  115 
South  America  127;  see  also  text 
on  different  countries 
Clyde,  Firth  of  klid  165*  (171,  E  4) 
Clyde  River  165, 168  (171,  E  4) 
coal  15,  26,  27,  40,  41,  59,  75,  83, 

104,  159, 165, 181,  186,  243,  262, 

286-287,  App.  v 
Coast  Ranges 
North  America  80,  85  (122) 
South  America  (126,  A  3) 
Coastal  Hilly  Belt  4,  12  (3,  M  2) 
Coastal  Lowland  (Africa)  220 
Coastal  Plains  (Australia)  261 
Cobb,  cov  (171,  C  6) 
coconuts  ko'ko-ntits  17*,  95,  229,  264 
Cod,  Cape  7, 12, 17, 19  (3,  M  2) 
codfish  8*,  297 

Cceur  d'Alene  kur  da-lan'  60  (73,  F  2) 
coffee  131, 132,  238,  255,  279 
Cohoes  ko-hoz'  (35,  F  2) 
Cologne  kS-l5n'  191, 193  (182,  K  3) 
Colombia  k6-l6m'b*-a  138  (135,  B  2) 
Colombo  kS-lom'bo  254  (250,  F  8) 
Colon  ko-lon'  88, 114  (119,  J  6) 
Colon  Archipelago  ar-ki-p61'a-g5  155 

(135,  A  4) 
Colorado  k61-6-ra'd6  77  (76,  K  2) 


Colorado  Plateau  67  (S,  T>  3) 
Colorado  River  67  (76,  H  3) 
Colorado  Springs  57,  77  (76,  L  2) 
Columbia,  S.C.  17,  22  (23,  G3) 
Columbia  Plateau  66  (-',  C  1) 
Columbia  River  66,  75,  81*  (2,  B  1) 
Columbus,  Ga.  17,  22  (23,  E  3) 
Columbus,  Ohio  44,  47  (45,  F  5) 
commerce   100,  102,  300-303  (App. 

Plate  B) 
Concepci6n  kon-sgp-syon'  153  (145, 

D5) 
Concord  kon'kord  8  (13,  D  5) 
Congo  Basin  kon'g5  221  (218,  F4) 
Congo  River  229  (218,  E  5) 
Conneaut  kdn-S-ot'  (45,  G  4) 
Connecticut  ko-n6tl-kut  8,  9, 12  (13, 

C7) 
Connecticut  River  6,  9  (13,  C  6) 
conservation,  see  natural  resources 
Constance,  Lake  kon'.stans  192  (183, 

L5) 
Constantinoplekon-st  an-tl-no 'p'  1 1 57, 

203,  215  (201,  E6) 
Continental  Divide  61,  62*,  300*  (2) 
continental  shelf  15, 18  (122,  F  12) 
Cook  Inlet  (84,  H  2) 
Coos  Bay  ko'os  75 
Coosa  River  kdo'sa  (23,  B  3) 
copal  ko'pal  222 
Copenhagen  ko-pgn-ha'gen  174  (171, 

0  4) 
copper  41,  113*,  141,  146,  204,  289*, 

290-291 
Copper  River  86  (84,  K  2) 
copra  k5p'ra  94,  95,  255 
corals  kor'a'iz  19,  120,  261.  2(i4 
C6rdoba  kor'do-va  151  (145,  C6) 
Cordova,  Alaska  kor'do-va  86  (84, 

J  2) 
Corfu  k6r'fu  214*  (209,  G  3) 
Corinth  kor'inth  (209,  II  3) 
cork  204,  205*,  206,  228 
Cork,  Ireland  108  (171.  C  6) 
corn  48,  49,  53,  148, 194,  278 
Corsica  kfir'sl-ka  (161,  G  7) 
Corvallis  kor-vftlls  (73,  C  3) 
Costa  Rica    kos'ta  re'ka    114   (119, 

H5) 
Cotopaxi,  Mt.  ko-tfc-pSk'se"  App.  iv 

(126,  B  3) 
cotton  16,  68,  222,  223,  253,  282*, 

283,  App.  v 
cotton-boll  weevil  16 
cotton  manufacture  6*,  7*,  16,  166, 

176,  181,  246,  253 
cotton-seed  products  16 
Covington  kuv'Ing-ton  44  (45,  E  5) 
Crater  Lake  National  Park  kra'tgr 

70,  79,  App.  v  (73,  C  4) 
Crawford  Notch  krt'fSrd  11* 
Crefeld  kra'felt  (182,  K  3) 
Crete  kret  (161,  K  8) 
Crimea  krl-me'a  (201.  F  5) 
Cripple  Creek  60  (76,  L  2) 
Croatia  kro-a'shl-a  (183,  P  6) 
crops  278,  279,  283 
Croton  kro'tun  36*  (35,  F  3) 
Cuba  ku'ba  115, 116  (119,  H  3) 
Cumberland   Gap    kum'bEr-land   46 

(35,  A_5) 
Curacao  kod-ra-sa'o  (119,  L  5) 
currants  214 

currents,  ocean  272-273  (275) 
Cuyahoga  River  ki'a-ho'ga  46*  (45, 

G4) 
Cuzco  koos'kS  141  (135,  B  4) 
Cyprus  si'prus  168  (201.  F  7) 
Czechoslovakia       ch6k-o-sl6-va'kI-a 

159,  190,  195  (183,  O  4) 

Dahomey  da-h5'ma  228  (227,  D  4) 
Dairen  dl'ren'  (247,  H  5) 
dairy-farming  6*   28*,  49,  70*,  174, 

176,  187,  188,  257,  259*,  283 
Dakar  da-kar'  (227,  B  3) 
Dallas  dai'as  24  (25,  F  3) 
Dalmatia  dal-ma'shl-a  (1S3,  P  7) 


INDEX  AND  PRONUNCIATIONS 


xiu 


Damascus  da-mas'kus  236*,  238  (S60, 

B5) 
Danube  River  dan'ub  190,  191,  193, 

194,  213  (101,  L  7) 
Danzig  dan'tslK  196  (1SS,  R  1) 
Dapsang,  Mt.  diip-sung'  App.  iv 
Dardanelles    dar-da-nglz'  215   (161, 

L7) 
Dar  es   Salam   dar   es  sa-Uiui'  223 

\m,  o  5) 

Darling  River  dar'lmg  (258,  £  6) 
dates  220,  228*,  239,  254 
Davenport   dav'gn-port   50,   54  (55, 

H5) 
Dawson  do'sim  86,  109  (10 7,  A  3) 
Dayton  da'ton  44  (45,  E  5) 
Dead  Sea  230*  (837,  D  4) 
Death  Valley  67  (2,  C  3) 
Dekkan  dgk'an  233,  253  (233,  F  7) 
Delagoa  Bay  del-a-gu'a  (227,  G  7) 
Delaware  del'a-war  34  (35,  E  4) 
Delaware  Bay"  1 7,  18  (3,  L  3) 
Delaware  River  17,  32*  (3,  L  2) 
Delaware  Water  Gap  36  (35,  E  3) 
Delhi  dSl'6  253,  254*  (250,  F  6) 
Delta,  Colorado  77  (76,  J  2) 
deltas  19.  100,  134,  175,  223,  244 
Demavend,  Mt.  dfim-a-vend'  App.  iv 

(.'.;,  G3) 
Denmark  91.  174  (171,  M  4) 
Denver  57,  58*,  62  (76,  L  2) 
deserts,  see  under  desert  names 
Des  Moines  dg  moin'  54  (55,  G  5) 
Des  Plaines  River  de-plan'  42, 46, 50* 
Detroit  de-troit'  41,  42*,  43,  44,  47 

(45,  F  3) 
diamonds  181,  177,  221,  224,  228 
Dieppe  dr-ep'  (182,  G4) 
dikes  186,  175 

Dinaric  Alps  dl-uar'Ik  213  (1G1,  J  7) 
directions  209 
distributary  19 

District  of  Columbia  32, 101  (3,5,  D4) 
Dnieper  River  ne'per  198  (101,  M  6) 
Dniester  River  ugs'ter  (201,  E  5) 
Dominican  Republic  d6-inm'I-kanl20 

( 119,  K  4) 
Don  River  198  (101,  0  6) 
Donetz  River  do-nygts'  (201,  G  5) 
Doubs  River  duo  (182,  K  5) 
Douro  River  do'roo  206  (208,  B  2) 
Dover,  Delaware  do'vgr  34  (35,  E  4) 
Dover.  Strait  of  164  (171,  H  6) 
Drakensberg    Range    drii'kgnz-burg 

220 
Drave  River  drii'vg  (1S3,  V  6) 
Dresden  dvez'deu  192  (183,  N3) 
driftless  area  4,  40,  51  (3,  H  2) 
drowned  river  mouths  11,  15, 18,  75, 

164,  189 
dry  farming  57,  69,  231,  280 
Dublin  dfib'lTn  168  (171,  D  5) 
Dubuque  duo-bilk'  54  (55,  H  4) 
Duluth  duu-lo6th'  47,  54  (55,  G2) 
Diina  River  dii'na  198  (201,  D  3) 
Dunedin  diih-e'dln  (260,  H  6) 
Dunkirk  diin'kurk  180*,  181  (182,  H3) 
Durango  doo-r&n'g6  (70,  K  3) 
Durazzo  doo-rat'so  (208,  G  2) 
Durban  dur'ban  (227,  G  7) 
Durham  dfir'am  (23,  H  2) 
Diisseldorf  diis'el-dorf  (1S2.  K  3) 
Dutch  East  Indies,  see  East  Indies 
Dutch  Guiana,  see  Guiana 
Dvina  River  dve-na'  198  (201,  H  2) 

earth 

axis  269,  270 

revolution  269,  271* 

rotation  269 

shape  and  size  268 

in  the  universe  276 
earthquakes  80,  85,  92,  127,  140,  207 
East  Australian  Highlands  257  (258, 

E3) 
East  China  Highlands  231  (232,  J  6) 
East  Indies  In'dlz  176,  255  (200,  A  2) 
East  Prussia  prush'a  193  (183,  S  1) 


East  St.  Louis  loo'Is  or  loo'I  44  (45, 

B5) 
East    Siberian  Uplands    si-be'rl-an 

231  (232,  H  2) 
East  Turkestan  Plateau  toor  kg  stan' 

288  (.'.;.',  G4) 
ebony  112, 131 

Ebro  River  e'brO  204  (208,  C  2) 
eclipses  270 
Ecuador     gk'wa-dor    138-139,     155 

(135,  B  3)  " 
Edinburgh  ed'in-bur-6  168  (171,  F  4) 
Edmonton  ed'mun-tun  108  (107,  C  4) 
Edward,  Lake  220  (218,  F  5) 
Egypt  e'jipt  222-223  (227,  F  2) 
Egyptians  222 
Ekaterinburg      ye-ka'tyg-re"n-b(x>rk' 

(201,  M  3) 
Elba  Island  el'ba  210,  289  (208,  F  2) 
Elbe  River  gl'bg  189,  190,  192  (161, 

H6) 
Elberfeld  gl-bgr-f elf  (182,  K  3) 
Elbruz,  Mt.  61-brooz'  App.  iv  (161, 

0  7) 
Elburz  Mts.  61-boTirz'  239  (232,  D  5) 
electric  power  5,  6,  27,  42,  62,  75,  296 
elephants  221,  251,  253 
Elgin  el'jln  (45,  C  3) 
Ellesmere  Island  glz'mer  (122,  B  11) 
Ellice  Islands  ells  (260,  H  2) 
El  Paso  61  pas'o  (25,  A  4) 
emeralds  138 

Endicott  Range  86  (S4,  G  1) 
England  In'gland  164-167  (171) 
English  Channel  (161,  E  6) 
Spinal  ft-p*-nal'  (182,  K  4) 
equator  269,  270 
equatorial  calms,  belt  of  272 
equatorial  rainy  belt  234 
Erebus,  Mt.  gr'S-bus  (267) 
Erie  e'ri  41,  47  (35,  B  2) 
Erie,  Lake  41,  46,  52  (35,  B  2) 
Erie  Canal  31 

Eritrea  a-re-trg'a  229  (227,  G  3) 
Erivan  gr-e-van'  200  (201,  H  6) 
Erzerum  erz-room'  (237,  E  3) 
Erz  Gebirge  grts'gg-blr'gg  (183,  N  3) 
Escanaba  gs-ka-no'ba  (45,  D  2) 
Eskimo  es'kl-mo  85,  86, 110,  121, 174 
Essen  gs'en  193  (182,  K  3) 
Essequibo  Falls  gs-ft-ke'bo  134 
Esthonia  es-tho'nl-a  197  (201,  D  3) 
estuaries  es'tu-4-iiz  18 
Etah  e'ta  266*,  270*  (107,  G  2) 
Etna,  Mt.  gt'na  207,  211  (161,  H  8) 
Euphrates  River  u-fra'tez  233,  236 

(232,  B  5) 
Europe  tt'rup  157-210  (161, 171, 182- 

183, 201, 208-200, 216,  opp.  216) 
Evansville  gv'anz-vil  44  (45,  D  5) 
Everest,  Mt.  gv'gr-gst  App.  iv  (232, 

GO) 
Everglades  gv'gr-gladz  (22,  G  6) 
exploration  267-268  (App.  Plate  A) 
Africa  217,  267 

Polar  266*,  268  (122 ;  opp.  266) 
United  States  7,  17,  46,  56,  69,  70, 
98,  99  (2-3) 

Fairbanks  86  (S4,  J  2) 

Falkland  Islands  fak'land  155  (126, 

D8) 
fall  line  17,104  (3,  K  4) 
Fall  River  7*,  8  (IS,  D  7) 
Fargo  f  ar'g5  54  (55,  E  2) 
farm  implements  50,  53*,  57*,  280* 
farming,  see  agriculture 
Faroe  Islands  i'ar'o  or  fa'ro  174  (161, 

D3) 
Fayetteville  fft-yet'vil  38  (25,  G  1) 
Fear,  Cape  (23,  J  3) 
Fez  fgz  (227,  C  1) 
figs  71,  210,  236 
Fiji  Islands  fe'je  169  (260,  H  3) 
Finger  Lakes  36 
Finland  f  Inland  197  (201,  E  2) 
Finland,  Upland  of  (161,  L  3) 
Finns  157 


fiords  fyordz  83,  110,  158*,  170,  173, 

263 
firths  furths  164 
fish  8,  16,  74,  85,  103,  110,  165,  173, 

200,  206,  297-298 
Fitchburg  fich'burg  (13,  D  6) 
Fiume  fyOo'ma  212,  213  (208.  F  1) 
Flanders  fiau'dgrz  166  (171,  J  6) 
flax  53,  151,  168,  178,  197 
Flint,  Mich.  44  (45,  F  3) 
Florence  rlor'ens  211  (208,  F  2) 
Florida  tior'I-da  22  (23,  F  5) 
Foochow  f  6o-clio'  (250,  K  6) 
forests  15,  28,  42,  74,  109*,  128,  158, 

191,  221,  284-285;    see  national 

forests 
Formosa    (Taiwan)    for-mo'sa    249 

(250,  L  6) 
Forth,  Firth  of  forth  (171,  F  3) 
Fort  Smith  24,  38  (25,  G  2) 
Fort  Wayne  wan  44  (45,  E  4) 
Fort  William  105*  (107,  E  5) 
Fort  Worth  24  (25,  F  3) 
France  180-186  (182) 
Frankfort,  Ky.    fr&nk'furt   44   (45, 

E5) 
Frankfort-on-the-Main     man      192 

(183,  L  3) 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder     C'dgr      192 

.     (183,  O  2) 
Franklin,  District  of  108  (107,  T>  2) 
Fraser  River  f  ra'zer  (107,  B  4) 
Fredericton  fred'gr-Ik-tun  (107,  H  5) 
Freetown  f re'town  (227,  B  4) 
Freiburg  f  ri'boorK  191  (182,  K  5) 
French  Congo,   see  French  Equatorial 

Africa 
French  Equatorial  Africa  186,  228 

(227,  E  4) 
French  Guiana,  see  Guiana 
French  Indo-China  249  (250,  J  7) 
French  West  Africa  228  (227,  C  3) 
Fresno  frez'no  78  (70,  D  3) 
Frigid  zones  121,  270 
fruit  38,  39,  68,  71, 153,  204,  214 
Fuji,  Mt.  fuu'j*  246  (232,  M  5) 
Funchal  foox-shal'  (227,  B  1) 
Fundy,  Bay  of  fiin'di  103  (107,  H  5) 
Fusan  fOo-san'  249  (250,  L  5) 

Gaillard  Cut  ga-yar'  88,  89* 
Galapagos  Islands  ga-la'pa-gos,  see 

Colon  Archipelago 
Galatz  ga'lats  202  (209,  J  1) 
Galicia  ga-llshl-a  (183,  S  4) 
Galilee,  S~ea  of  gal'i-16  236* 
Gallinas,  Cape  gal-ye'nas  (126,  B 1) 
Galveston  gal'vgs-tun    19*,   24  (25, 

G5) 
Gambia  gam'bi-a  223,  225  (227,  B  3) 
Ganges,  Plain  of  the  gSn'jgz  233,  253 

(232,  G  6) 
Ganges  River  233,  252*,  253  (232, 

G6) 
Garonne  River  ea-i*n'  180  (1S2,  F  6) 
Gary  ga'rl  41,  44,  50*  (45,  D  4) 
gas,  see  natural  gas 
Gatun  Lake  ga-toon'  88,  89* 
General  Grant  National  Park  App.  v . 

(76,  D  3) 
Genesee  River  jgn-^-sg'  34,  37*  (35, 

C  2) 
Geneva  j*-ne'va  188  (208.  E  1) 
Geneva,  Lake  187*,  188  (182,  K5) 
Genoa  j?'n'6-a  211  (208,  E  2) 
Genoa,  Gulf  of  207  (208,  E  2) 
Georgetown  134,  136*  (135,  T>  2) 
Georgia,   Europe  j6r'ji-a  200   (201, 

H6) 
Georgia,  U.S.  22  (23,  F  3) 
Germany    jur'ma-nl    163,    189-193 

(182-1S3) 
geysers  gi'sgrz  63,  64*,  175,  263 
Ghent  gSnt  166,  178  (171.  J  6) 
Gibraltar  jl-bral'tgr  205  (208,  B  3) 
Gibraltar,  Strait  of  217  (161,  D8) 
Gila  River  he'la  (76,  G  5) 
Gilbert  Islands  gll'bgrt  169  (260,  II 1) 


Gironde  River  zhg-r6xd'  (182,  F  6) 
Glacier  National  Park   gla'sbgr  or 

glas'I-gr  1*,  4*,  03,  App.  v(i,Dl) 
glaciers  63,  64,  79,  81*,  187, 198,  295; 

see  ice-sheet 
Glasgow  glas'go  165,  168  (171,  E  4) 
glass  10,  32,  178,  190,  196 
Glenwood  Springs  02  (76,  K  2) 
Globe,  Arizona  08  (70,  H  5) 
Gloucester  glos'tgr  8  (13,  E  6) 
Gobi,  Desert  of  go'be  (232.  J  4) 
gold  69,  70,  83,  109,  224,  259,  293 
Gold  Coast  223,  225  (227,  C  4) 
Golden  Gate  78,  79*  (2,  B  3) 
Goldfield  68  (70,  E  3) 
Good  Hope,  Cape  of  217  (21S,  E  8) 
Gdteborg  yfi-te-bor'y'  173  (201,  B  3) 
Granada  gra-na'da  (208,  C  3) 
Grand  Bank  110  (122,  E  14) 
Grand  Canyon  67,  68 
Grand  Canyon  National  Park  App. 

v(2,  D3) 
Grand  Forks  54  (SB,  E  2) 
Grand  Junction  77  (76,  J  2) 
Grand  Rapids  43  (45,  E  3) 
granite  5,  9,  168,  181,  294 
grapes  39*,  71,  146,  184, 191,  211,  214 
graphite  254 

Grasse  gras  185  (182,  K  7) 
Great  Barrier  Reef  261  (258,  E  3) 
Great  Basin  65,  67  (2,  C  3) 
Great  Britain  164-168  (171) 
Great  Dividing  Range  257  (258,  E  4) 
Great  Falls.  Mont.  57,  291*  (73,  J  2) 
Great    Khingan   Mts.  Kin-gan'  231 

(.'.;.',  K5) 
Great  Lakes  39,  41, 42,  52  (122,  E  11) 
Great  Plains 

Australia  257  (258,  V>  4) 
North  America  53,  106  (122) 
Great  Salt  Lake  67,  68  (2,  D  2) 
Great  Slave  Lake  (107,  C  3) 
Great  Smoky  Mts.  30,  38  (23,  F  2) 
Greece  203,  214  (209,  H  3) 
Greeks  157,  214,  222 
Green  Bay  46  (45,  D  2)  , 

Green  Mts.  12  (3,  M  2)  f 

Greenland  174,  267  (122,  B  15)      w 
Greenwich  grlnlj  167,  269  (171,  H  6) 
Grenada  gre'-nii'da  (119,  M  5) 
Grenoble  grg-no'b'l  185  (182,  J  6) 
Greytown  gra'town  114  (118,  H  5) 
Grodno  grSd'nS  196JJT83,  T  2) 
Guadalajara     gwa-tiia-la-ha'ra     \^r 

(118,  D  3)  ^ 

Guadalquivir    River    g6-dal-kwlv'gr 

204,  205  (208,  B  3)  _  "^ 
Guadalupe  River  go-da-loo p^?.5,F  5) 
Guadeloupe  Island  go-dg-loop'  (119, 

M  4) 
Guadiana  River  gwa-thfca'na  (208, 

B3) 
G^fhra-Mirin^'  gwa-ha'ra-me'-rgN' 
^^(135,  C  4) 
Guam  gwiim  95,  100  (93,  G  2 ;  App. 

Plate  B,  R  4) 
guanaco  gwa-na'ko  141,  150 
Guanajuato  gwa-na-hwa'to  (118,  T>  3) 
^Guaqui  gwa-kg'  128*  (145,  B  4) 
Guatemala  gwa-ta-ma'lsi    114,  115* 

(118,  F  4) 
Guayaquil  gwi-a-kel'  139  (135,  A  3) 
Guernsey  Island  gurn'zl  (171,  F  7) 
Guiana  g^-a'na  (135,  D  2) 
British  125,  134 
Dutch  125,  134,  136 
French  125,  134,  136 
Guiana  Highlands  128  (120.  C2) 
Guinea,  Gulf  of  gliVI  186,  205,  225 

(218,  D  4) 
Gulf  Coastal  Plain  14.  Ill  (122) 
Gulf  Stream  14,  110,  272,  273 
Gulf  Stream  Drift  163,  272 
Gunong  Api  goo-nong'  a-pg'  264* 
gypsum  jip'sum  27 

Haarlem  har'lem  (182,  J  2) 
Habana  ha-va'na  116,  117*  (119,  H3) 


XIV 


INDEX  AND  PRONUNCIATIONS 


Hague,  The  hag  177  (171,  K  5) 
Haiti  ha'ti  115,  120  (119,  K  4) 
Haifa  hal'fa  (**7,  G  2) 
Halifax  hal'I-faks  103  (107,  H  5) 
Halle  ha.1'6  192  (1S3,  N  3) 
Hamburg  189,  190,  192  (1SS,  M  2) 
Hamilton  (107,  G  5) 
Hammerfest   ham'Sr-fgst    173  (Ml, 

Dl) 
Hampton   Roads   h&mp'tun  34   (35, 

D5) 
Han  River  nan  (247,  E  6) 
Hangchow  hang'chS'  (250,  K  5) 
Hankow  han'ko'  244  (250,  K  5) 
Hanoi  hii-noi'  (250,  J  6) 
Harbin  liar-ben'  (250,  L  4) 
Harney  Peak  haVnl  (5,5,  B  4) 
Harpers  Ferry  36  (35,  D  4) 
Harrisburg  29,  33,  36  (35,  D  3) 
Hartford  8  (13,  C  7) 
Harvard.  Mt.  har'vanl  (76,  K  2) 
Harz  Mts.  harts  (161,  H  6) 
Hatteras.  Cape  hat'gr-as  19,  297  (3, 

L3) 
Havel  River  ha'fel  (183,  N  2) 
Haverhill  ha'vgr-U  9  (13,  D  6) 
Havre  ha'vgr  185  (182,  G  4) 
Hawaii  National  Park  lia-wi'g   87, 

A  pp.  v 
Hawaiian  Islands  ha-wi'yan  87,  100 

(84) 
Hebrides  hgb'rl-dgz  (171,  D  3) 
Heidelberg  hi'dgl-bgrii  (183,  L  4) 
Hejaz  Iigj-az'  238  (237,  D  5) 
Helena  hgl'e-na  60,  72  (73,  H  2) 
Helgoland   Island   hei'gS-lant   (171, 

L4) 
Helsingfors  hel-slng-fors'  197  (201, 

D2) 
hemp  92*,  94,  178,  190,  282*,  300* 
Hermon,  Mt.  Imr'inun  236*,  App.  iv 
Hibbing  hlb'Ing  (55",  G  2) 
Highlands 
Abyssinian  220  (218,  G  3) 
Appalachian  5,  26,  103  (122) 
Brazilian  127  (126,  E  5) 
Central  (Europe)  159  (161,  F  6) 
■  East  Australian  257  (258,  E  3) 
East  China  231  (232,  J  6) 
Guiana  128  (126,  C  2) 
Interior  (U.  S.)  38  (122,  F  10) 
Northwest  (Europe)  158  (161) 
Scottish  (161,  D  4) 
Siberian  240 
**jouth  Australian  257  (258,  D  5) 
Southern  (Africa)  220  (218,  F  8) 
Victorian  257  (258,  E  5) 
Hilo  he'lo  87  (84,  F  4) 
Himalaya  Mts.  hl-ma'la-ya  231*,  234, 

245,  252  (232,  G  6) 
Hindu  Kush  Mts.  hlii'doo  koosh'  239 

(232,  E  5) 
Hindus  hin'dcoz  252 
Hobart  ho'bart  (260,  E  6) 
Hoboken  h5'bo-ken  30  (35,  E  3) 
hogs,  see  swine 

Holland  hdl'and,  see  Netherlands 
Holy  Cross,  Mt.  App.  iv  (76,  K  2) 
Holy  Land  236 
Holyoke  hol'yok  8  (13,  C  6) 
Hondo  li5n'dft  (247,  L  5) 
Honduras  hon-doo'ras  114  (118-119, 

G5) 
Hongkong  hong'kong'  244  (250,  K  6) 
Honolulu  ho-no-loo'loo  87  (S4,  D  2) 
Hood.  Mt.  MM  79*  (73,  T)  3) 
Horn.  Cape  147,  155  (145,  C  8) 
horse  latitudes  272 
horses  49,  112,  116,  148,  178*,  238 
Hot  Springs  (25,  H  2) 
Hot  Springs  National  Park  App.  v 
Houlton  hol'ton  12  (13,  H  2) 
Houston  hus'ton  19*,  24  (25,  G  5) 
Hsiang  River  shg-ang'  (247,  F  7) 
Hudson  Bay  hGd'son  10,  105  (122, 

Dll) 
Hudson  Bay  Lowland  105  (122,  D 10) 
Hudson  River  30,  31  (35,  F  3) 


Hull  hul  (171,  G  5) 
Humber  River  hum'bgr  (171,  G  5) 
Hungarian  Gate  hun-ga'rl-an  194 
Hungary  hun'ga-rl  194  (1S3,  R  5) 
Hungary,  Plain  of  162,  194  (161,  J  6) 
Huntington,  W.  Va.  29,  34  (35,  A  4) 
Huron,  Lake  hu'ron  41,  62  (45,  F  2) 
Hwaianfu  hwl-an-foo'  (247,  G  6) 
Hwang  River  hwang  243  (232,  K  5) 
Hyderabad  hi-dgr-a-bad'  (250,  F  7) 
hydroelectric  power,  see  electric  power 

Iberian    Peninsula    i-be'rl-an    203, 

205  (161,  D  7) 
Iberian  Plateau  204,  206  (161,  D  7) 
icebergs  110,  174 
Iceland  175  (161,  B  2) 

lCC-SflGGt 

Europe  162,  163*,  165,  170,  174, 

187,  196,  198 
North  America  10,  36,  40,  51,  64 
Idaho  i'da-ho  72  (73,  G  3) 
Iguassu  Falls  e-gwa-soo'  125*  (126, 

D5) 
Illimani,  Mt.  gl-ye'-ma'ne'  143*,  App. 

iv  (135,  C  4) 
Illinois  Il-I-noi'  or  -noiz'  44  (45,  C  4) 
Illinois  River  46,  52  (45,  B  4) 
Iloilo  6-16-e'lo  (92,  D  5) 
India  In'dl-a  231,  262-254  (250,  G  6) 
India,  Plateau  of  233,  252  (232,  F  6) 
Indian  Ocean  251,  App.  v  (275) 
Indiana  In-dl-an'a  44  (45,  D  5) 
Indianapolis  In-dl-an-ap'6-lls  44,  47 

(45,  I)  5) 
Indians  65,  83,  112,  130,  143,  150 
Indo-China  Tn'dO  249  (250,  J  7) 
Indo-China,  Lowlands  of  233  (232, 

.17) 
Indus,  Plain  of  the  In'dus  233  (232, 

F5) 
Indus  River  233,  253  (232,  E  6) 
industrial  regions  5,  21*,  26,  39,  159, 

164,  190 
Innsbruck  ms'brook  (183,  M  5) 
Interior  Hlds.,  U.  S.  38  (122,  F 10) 
Iowa  i'ft-wa  54  (55,  G  4) 
Iquique  £-kg'ka  (145,  B  5) 
Iquitos  e-kg'tos  128*,  142  (135,  B  3) 
Iran,  Plateau  of  e-ran'  233  (232,  D  5) 
Iraq  g-rak'  236  (250,  C  5) 
Ireland  Ir'land  164,  165,  168  (171) 
Irish  Free  State  164  (171,  C-D  6) 
Irish  Sea  (171,  E  5) 
Irkut  River  Ir-kdot'  241 
Irkutsk  Ir-kootsk'  241  (250,  J  3) 
iron  26,  40,  172, 181,  190,  289,  App.  v 
iron  and  steel  manufactures  26,  32, 

33,  37*,  41,  104,  167, 184, 193,  290 
Iron  Gate  194  (161,  K  6) 
Irrawaddy  River  Ir-a-wddl  (250,  H  7) 
irrigation  66, 68, 69  ,71,  131, 143, 223, 

233,  252,  280  (55,  75,  76) 
Isar  River  e'zar  (183,  N  4) 
Ispahan  Is-pa-han'  (237,  G  4) 
Italians  I-taTyanz  157 
Italy  Tt'a-11  207,  210-212  (208-209) 
Itatiaya,   Mt.   e'-ta-te'-a'ya  App.   iv 

(126,  E5) 
ivory  178,  221,  223 
ivory,  vegetable  138 
Ivory  Coast  228  (218,  C  4) 
Iztaccihuatl,     Mt.     Ss-tak-seTiwat'l 

111  (118,  E4) 

Jackson  jak'sun  (23,  B  3) 

Jacksonville  17,  22  (23,  G4) 

Jaffa  ya'fa  (237,  C  4) 

Jamaica  ja-ma'ka  115,  117  (119.  J  4) 

James  River  17  (35,  C  5) 

Japan    ja-pan'    231,  246,   248,   249 

(250) 
Japan  current  83,  273  (275) 
Japanese  jap-a-nfiz'  246 
Java  jii'va  255"  (260,  A  2) 
Jefferson  City  38  (55,  G  6) 
Jerome  ii-r0m'  68  (76,  G  4) 
Jersey  City  jur'zi  30,  34  (35,  E  3) 


Jerusalem  je-roo'sa-lem   235*,   236* 

(237,  D4) 
Jews  235,  236 

Jibuti  je-boo-te'  228,  229  (227,  H  3) 
Johannesburg    y6-han'es-burg    224, 

225*  (227,  F7) 
Joplin  jSp'lln  38  (55,  F  7) 
Jordan  River,  Palestine  j6r'dan  236* 

(209,  L  4) 
Jordan  River,  Utah  68 
Juanacatlan    Falls    hwa-na-kat-lan' 

112* 
Juan  de  Fuca,  Strait  of  hwan'  da 

foo'ka  (2,  B  1) 
Juan   Fernandez   Island   hwan   fgr- 

nan'dath  (145,  A  6) 
Judea  joo-de'a  236* 
Jugoslavia  yoo-gS-sla'vI-a   203,  213 

(209,  G2) 
Jujuy  hoo-hwe'  (145,  C  5) 
Julianehaab  yoo'lg-an-i-liab  174  (107, 

K3) 
Juneau  joo'no  85  (84,  M  3) 
Jura  Mts.  joo'ra  180,  187  (161,  G  6) 
jute  joot  253 
Jutland  jut'land  174  (171,  M  3) 

Kabul  ka'bool  239  (250,  E  5) 

kafir  corn  ka'fgr  63 

Kafirs  219,  224* 

Kalahari  Desert  ka-la-ha'rg  223  (218, 

F7) 
Kalamazoo  kal-a-ma-zoo'  44  (45,  E  3) 
Kalgoorlie  kai-goor7lT  259  (260,  C5) 
Kama  ka'ma  (201,  K  3) 
Kamchatka  kam-chat'ka  (250,  O  3) 
Kan  River  kan  (247,  G  7) 
Kanawha  River  ka-no'wa  (35,  B  4) 
Kanchanjanga,  Mt.  kan-chCLn-jun'ga 

App.  iv  (232,  G  6) 
Kandy  kan'dg  253* 
Kano  ka'n5  (227,  D  3) 
Kansas  kan'zas  64  (55,  D  6) 
Kansas  City,  Kans.  54  (55,  F  6) 
Kansas  City,  Mo.  48,  54  (55,  F  6) 
Karachi  ka-ra'chg  (250,  E  6) 
Karakoram  Mts.  ka-ra-ko'rum  i 

F5) 

Karlsbad  kiirls'bat  195  (183,  N  3) 
Karlsruhe  karls'roo-g  191  (183,  L  4) 
Kashgar  kash-gar'  245  (250,  F  5) 
Kashmir  kash-mer'  (250,  F  5) 
Katmai  Nat'l  Monument  kat-mr  85 
Keewatin,  District  of  ke'-wa'tin  108 

(107,  E  3) 
Keijo  kay-jo'  249  (250,  L  6) 
Kenosha  kS-no'sha  44  (45,  D  3) 
Kentucky  44  (45,~E  6) 
Kenya,  Mt.  ka'ng-a  220  (218,  G  5) 
Kenya  Colony  223  (227,  G  4) 
Keokuk  ke'o-kuk  42  (55,  H  5) 
Ketchikan  kgch-I-kan'  (84,  M  3) 
Keuka  Lake  kg-u'ka  (35,  D  2) 
Keweenaw  Pen.  ke'we'-na  (45,  C  1) 
Key  West  kg  (119,  H  3) 
Khartum  Kar-toom'  223_(^7,  G  3) 
Khatmandu  kat-man-doo'  (250,  G  6) 
Khiva  Kg  va  239  (250,  D  4) 
Khyber  Pass  ki'bgr  239 
Kiaochow  kyow'clio'  244  (250,  L  5) 
Kiel  Canal  kgl  190  (171,  M  4) 
Kiev  ke'ygf  202  (201,  F  4) 
Kigoma  ki-go'nia  223  (227,  G  5) 
Kilauea  ke-low-a'a  87,  88*  (S4,  F4) 
Kilimanjaro.  Mt.  kil-S-man-ja'rO  220 

(218,  G  5) 
Kimberley  kim'bgr-H  221*.  224  (227, 

F7) 
Kingston  kTngz'tun  117*  (119,  J  4) 
Kiolen  Range  kyu'len  172  (201,  C  1) 
Kirghiz   Steppe   kir-ggz'  stgp  (250, 

E4) 
Kisumu  ki-soo'moo  223  (227,  G  5) 
Klondike  klon'dik  109  (107,  A  3) 
Knoxville  noks'vll  22  (23,  F  2) 
Kobe  ko'bg  248  (247,  L  6) 
Koblenz  ke'blgnts  191  (182,  K  3) 
Kodiak  Island  kSd-yak'  (84,  H  3) 


Kongolo  k6n-g5'lft  (227,  F  5) 
Konigsberg  ku'nlKs-bgrK    193  (183, 

si) 

Korea  ko-rg'a,  see  Chosen 
Kosciusko,  Mt.   kos-I-us'k5  App.  iv 

(258,  E  5) 
Kovno  kov'n*  197  (201,  D  4) 
Krakow  kra'ks  197  (183,  R  3) 
Kronstadt  krOn'stat  202  (201,  E  5) 
Kuenlun  Mts.  kwgn-loon'  (232,  G  5) 
Kura  River  koo'ra  200  (201,  J  6) 
Kurdistan  koor-dl-stan'  (237,  E  3) 
Kuril  Islands  koo'rll  (247,  O  3) 
Kwangchow  kwang'cho'  (250,  K  6) 
Kyoto  kyo'to  248  (250,  M  5) 

Labrador  lab-ra-d6r'  104,   110,  169, 

291  (107,  H  4) 
Labrador  Current  110,  273  (275) 
Lafayette  National   Park  la-fft-ygf 

11,  App.  v 
Lagos  la'gos  (227,  D  4) 
La  Guaira  la  gwi'ra  137  (135,  C  1) 
Laguna  del  Inca  la-goo'na  dgl  $n'ka 

127* 
Lakes  10,  36,  162,  170,  187,  198 
Lansing  lan'slng  (45,  E  3) 
La  Paz  la  pas'  143  (135,  C  4) 
Lapland  lap'iand  (201,  D  1) 
Laplanders  157,  172 
La  Plata  la  pla'ta  (145,  D  6) 
Laramie  lar'a-ml,  72  (73,  M  5) 
Laramie  Range  (73,  M  4) 
La  Salle,  111.  la  sal'  41  (45,  C  4) 
Lassa  las'a  245"  (250,  H  6) 
Lassen  Peak  las'en  80  (2,  B  2) 
Lassen  Volcanic  Nat'l  Park  App.  v 
latitude  269 

Latvia  lat'vl-a  197  (201,  T>  3) 
Laurentian  Upland  16-r6n'shl-an  or 

-shan  104  (122,  D  10) 
lava  la'va  66,  233 

Lawrence,  Mass.  16'rgns  8  (13,  D  6) 
lead  lgd  38.  41,  204,  292 
Lead,  S.D.  led  58*  (55,  B  3) 
Leadville  lgd'vll  60  (76,  K  2) 
Lebanon,  Mt.  lgb'a-ngn  236* 
Le  Creusot  lg  cru-zO'  (182,  J  5) 
Leeds  ledz  166  (171,  G  5) 
Leeward  Islands  le'wgrd   115  (119, 

M4) 
Leghorn  lgg'h6rn  (208,  F  2) 
Leiden  li'den  177 
Leipzig  lip?slk  192  (183,  N  3) 
Leith  16th  168  (171,  F  4) 
Lemberg  lgm'berK  (183,  U  4) 
Lena  River  le'na  240  (232,  J  3) 
Leon  lg'on  (118^  G  5) 
Leopoldville   lg'6-pold-vll  229  (227, 

E5) 
Lewiston  lu'is-tun  8  (13,  E  4) 
Leyte  Island  la'ta  (93,  E  5) 
Libau  le'bow  197*  (201,  D  3) 
Liberia  li-be'rl-a  229  (227,  C  4) 
Libia  lib'I-a  229  (227,  E  2) 
Libreville  fg-br'-vgl'  (227,  D  4) 
Libyan  Desert  libl-an  (227,  F  2) 
Liechtenstein  liiv'ten-shtin  (208,  F  1) 
Liege  l^-6zh'  178  (171,  K  6) 
lignite  lig'nit  15,  53,  286 
Lille  lei  181  (182,  H  3) 
Lima,    Peru   le'ma   140  (135,  B  4)  ; 

(U.S.  city,  li'ma) 
limestone  5,  43,  294" 
Limoges  le-mozh'  184  (182,  G  6) 
Limon  lg-mon'  114*  (119,  H  6) 
Lincoln  lin'kun  54  (55,  E  5) 
linen  manufacture    168,   169*,   176, 

178,  181 
Lisbon  llz'bon  206  (208,  B  3) 
Lithuania  lith-4-a'nI-a  197  (201,  D  3) 
Little  Rock  24  (25,  H2) 
Liverpool  llv'gr-pool  166  (171,  F  5) 
llama  la'ma  141,  143 
Llano  Estacado  la'no  gs-ta-ka'ds  (2, 

F4) 
llanos  128 
Lodz   lmlz  196  (201,  C  4) 


INDEX  AND  PRONUNCIATIONS 


xv 


Lofoten  Islands  l6-f5'ten   173  (201, 
Bl) 

Logan,  Mt.  16'gan  App.  iv  (107,  A  3) 
Loire  River  Iwar  185  (161,  F  6) 
Lomond,    Loch    16k    10'mund    165* 

(171,  E  3) 
London  167  (171,  G  6) 
Londonderry  lun'dun-der-I  (171,  D  4) 
Long  Island  10,  14",  30*  (35,  F  3) 
Long  Island  Sound  12  (86,  F  3) 
longitude  167,  269 
Longs  Peak  App.  iv  (76,  L  1) 
Lookout,  Cape  18  (3,  L  4) 
Lorain  16-ran'  (45,  F  4) 
Lorraine  16-ran'  181  (183,  K4) 
Los  Angeles  los  Sn'gel-es  77,  78  (76, 

D4) 
Louise,  Lake  109* 
Louisiana  loo-e-zg-an'a  16, 18,  24  (25, 

H4) 
Louisville  loo'is-vl!  or  loo'I-vil  44,  48 

(45,  E  5) 
Lourenpo  Marques  lo-ren'so  niar'kes 

(227,  G  7) 
Lowell  lo'el  8  (13,  D  6) 
Lower  California  111  (122,  G  8) 
Lowlands 

Amazon  128  (126) 

Baltic  170  (161,  J  3) 

Coastal  (Africa)  220 

Hudson  Bay  105  (122,  D  11) 

Manchurian  233  (232,  L  4) 

Mesopotamian  233  (232,  C  6) 

Orinoco  128  (126,  B  2) 

Pacific  80  (122,  EF  7) 

Parana  129  (126) 

Siam   and   Indo-China  233 
J  7) 

Southern  (Europe)  162 

Southern  and  Eastern  (Asia)  233 

Turan  231  (232,  D  4) 
Lucerne,  Lake  lu-sflrn'  (183,  L  5) 
Lucknow  luk'now  (250,  G  6) 
lumber  29*,  37*,  152*,  284 ;  see  also 

forests 
Luxemburg   liiks'Sm-bfirg    159,    179 

(182,  K  4) 
Luzon  loo-zon'  92  (93,  C  2) 
Lynn  lin  9  (13,  E  6) 
Lyon  le-6s'  184,  185  (189,  J  6) 
Lys  River  les  178  (182,  II  3) 

Macao  ma-ka'6  (250,  K  6) 

macaroni  211 

Mackenzie.  District  of  ma-kgn'zl  104, 

108  (107,  C  3) 
Mackenzie  River  106  (107,  B  3) 
Macon  ma'kon  1 7,  22  (23,  F  3) 
Madagascar  mM-a-gils'kar  228  (227, 

H7) 
Madeira   Falls   ma-de'ra    143   (135, 

C3) 
Madeira  Island  206,  229  (227,  B  1) 
Madeira  River  130  (126,  C  3) 
Madison  m&dl-sun  44  (45,  C  3) 
Madras  ma-dras'~253  (250,  G  7) 
Madrid,   Spain    ma-drld'    204,   205 

(208,  C2);  (U."S.  city,  mM'rld) 
Magdalena  River  mag-da-la'na   138 

(126,  B  1) 
Magdeburg   mag-dg-booi'K  192  (183, 

M2) 
Magellan,  Strait  of  ma-jel'an  127*, 

147,  155  (126,  C8)" 
Maggiore,  Lake  mad-jo'ra  207*  (183, 

L6) 
Magyars  mod'yorz  157 
mahogany  112,  114,  131,  221 
Main  River  man  192  (183,  L  4) 
Maine  8,  11,  12  (13,  F4) 
Mainz  mints  192  (183,  L  4) 
Makassar  ma-kas'ar  (258,  B  2) 
Malaga  ma'la-ga  (208,  C  3) 
Malakka  Strait  ma-lak'a  251  (232, 

J  8) 
Malar,  Lake  ma'lar  173  (201,  C  3) 
Malay  Peninsula   ma-la'   234,   251, 

255  (232,  3  8) 


Malay  States  251  (250,  3  8) 
Malmo  malm'u  173  (171,  O  4) 
Malta  mol'ta  168,  169*  (208,  F  3) 
Mammoth  Cave  44  (45,  D  6) 
Managua  miiriia'gwa  (118,  G  5) 
Manaos  ma-na'6s  132  (135,  D  3) 
Manchester,  Eng.  ma'n'cb.es-te'r  166 

(171,  F  5) 
Manchester,  N.  H.  6*,  8  (13,,  D  6) 
Manchuria    man-ch6o'rI-a   242,   244 

(250,  L  4) 
Manchurian  Lowlands  233  (232,  L  4) 
Mandalay  mSu'da-la  (250,  H  6) 
Manhattan  Island  man-hat'an  30*, 

31* 
Manich  River  ma-n6ch'  (161,  O  6) 
Manila  ma-nll'a  94,  95*  (93,  C  3) 
Manitoba"man-I-tO'ba  108(207,  E4) 
manufactures     299,    300  j    see    also 

names  of  products  manufactured, 

—  cotton,  iron,  etc. 
Maoris  ma'6-rlz  262*,  263 
Maracaibo   ma-ra-ki'b5  (135,  B  1) 
marble  5,  211,  294 
Marcy,  Mt.  mar'sl  App.  iv  (35,  F  1) 
Maritime  Provinces  marl-tim  103 
Maritza  River  ma'ri-taa,  214  (209,  J  2) 
Marmora,    Sea    of    mar'mO-ra   215 

(161,  L  7) 
Marne  River  marn  (182,  H  4) 
Marquette  mar-kgt'  (45,  D  1) 
Marseille   mar-sa'y'  184*,  185  (182, 

J  7) 
Marthas  Vineyard  mar'thaz  vin'yard 

10,  12  (3,  M  2) 
Martinique  Island  mar-tl-nek'  (119, 

MS) 
Maryland  mer'I-land  34  (35,  T)  4) 
Masbate  Island  mas-ba'ta  (93,  D  4) 
Maskat  mus-kat'  238  (250,  D  6)' 
Massachusetts  mis-a-clioo'sets  8,  12 

(13,  C  6) 
Matadi  ma-ta'dg  229  (227,  E  5) 
mate  ma'ta  132,  153 
Matterhorn  mat'gr-hSm  160* 
Maumee  River  m6-mg'  52  (45,  F  4) 
Mauna  Kea  mow'na  ka'a87  (£4,F4) 
Mauna  Loa  lo'a  87,  88*  (84,  F  4) 
Mauritius   Island  mo-rlsh'I-us  (227, 

J  7) 
Mazatlan  ma^sa-tlan'  113  (118,  C3) 
McKinley,  Mt.  App.  iv  (S4,  H  2) 
meat-packing   30,  50,  51*,  152,  154 
Medina  mft-de'na  238  (250,  B  6) 
Mediterranean  Sea  mgd-I-tgr-a'ne'-an 

203  (161) 
Mekka  mek'a  238  (250,  C  6) 
Mekong  River  ma-kdng'  (232,  3  7) 
Melbourne  mgl'burn  262  (260,  E  5) 
Memel  River  ma'mgl  196  (183,  T  1) 
Memphis  mem'fls  22  (23,  B  2) 
Menam  River  mft-nam'  (232,  3  7) 
Mendoza  mgn-dg'sa  151  (145,  C  6) 
Menominee  River  mf-noml-ne  (45, 

D2) 
Meridian  m^-ridl-an  22  (23,  C  3) 
meridians  269 
Merrimack    River   nigr'i-mak   7*,  8 

(13,  D  5) 
Mersey  River  miir'zT  164 
Mesa  Verde  National   Park    ma'sa 

ver'de  65*,  App.  v  (2,  E  3) 
Meseta  me-sa'ta  204,  205 
Mesopotamia  mgs-6-p6-ta'mi-a  231, 

233,  236  ;  see  also  Iraq 
Mesopotamian   Lowlands  233 

C5) 
Messina,  Strait  of  me-se'na  207  (161, 

.18) 
Metz  mets  (182,  K  4) 
Meuse  River  muz  (182,  3  3) 
Mexican     Plateau    mgk'.si-kan    111 

(122,  G  9) 
Mexico  mek'sl-ko  111-113  (118) 
Mexico,  City  of  111*,  113  (118,  E  4) 
Mexico,  Gulf  of  100,  272  (122,  G 10) 
Miami  mi-ami  (23,  G  7) 
Michigan,  mlsh'I-gan  44  (45,  D  1) 


Michigan,  Lake  41*,  42,  52  (45,  D  3) 
Middle  Atlantic  States  34  (35) 
Middletown  12  (13,  C  7) 
midnight  sun  170,  172,  270* 
Milan  mll'an  or  ml-ian'  207,  210,  211 

(208,  E  1) 
millet  243 

Millinocket  mil-I-nok'et  9  (13,  G  3) 
Miltsin,  Mt.  milt-sen'  App.  iv  (218, 

CI) 
Milwaukee  mll-wa'k6  41,  44,  47  (45, 

1)3)  - 

Mindanao  min-da-na'o  92  (93,  D  7) 
Mindoro  Island  me'n-do'ro  (93,  C  4) 
minerals  and  mining  59,  70, 112, 131, 

141,  146,  159,  204,  286-294 
Minneapolis    min-g-ap'6-lis  47*,   48 

(5,5,  G  3) 
Minnesota  mln-e-so'ta  54  (55,  F  3) 
Minsk  m6n.sk  200  (201,  E  4) 
Miquelon  I.  mlk-g-lon'  186  (107,  3  5) 
Mississippi  mis-T-sIpl  22  (23,  C  3) 
Mississippi  Delta  15,  19  (25,  K  5) 
Mississippi  River  42,  46,  301  (3,  H  4) 
Mississippi  Valley  17,  39,  51 
Missoula  mi-zoo'la  72  (73,  H  2) 
Missouri  lnl-soo'ii  54  (55,  G  6) 
Missouri  River  42,  130  (3,  G  2) 
Misti,  Mt.  mes'te  140  (126,  B  4) 
Mitchell,  Mt.  mich'el  (3,  K  3) 
Mobile  m6-bgl'  17,  22  (23,  C  4) 
Mohammedanism        ni6-ham'gd-an- 

Tz'm  235,  238 
Mohave  Desert  m6-ha'va  (76,  E  4) 
Mohawk  River  mo'hak  31  (35,  E2) 
Mohawk  Valley  30,  52 
Mokha  mo'ka  238  (250,  C  7) 
Moldau  River  niol'dow  190  (1S3,  04) 
Moline  m6-!en'  50  (45,  B4) 
Mollendo  ni6l-ygn'do  140,  142  (135, 

B4) 
Mombasa  mom-ba'sa  223  (227,  II  5) 
Monaco  mon'a-ko  (208,  E  2) 
Monadnock,  Mt.  mo-nad'nok  10  (13, 

C6) 
Monastir  mon-as-ter'  213  (209,  II  2) 
Mongolia  mon-g5-li-a  244  (250) 
Mongolia,  Plateau  of  2.33  (232,  K  4) 
Mongolian   race,    see    races   of    men 

(yellow  race) 
Monongahela  River  mS-non-ga-he'la 

32,  33*  (3,  L3) 
Monrovia  mon-ro'vi-a  229  (227,  B  4) 
Mons  m6xs  (171,  J  6) 
monsoons  mon-so6nz'  234,  272 
Montana  mon-ta'na  72  (73,  K2) 
Montenegro  mon-ta'-na'gro  (209,  G  2) 
Monterey  mon-tg-ra'  113  (IIS.  D2) 
Montevideo  mon-te'-vld'e'-o  154,  155* 

(145,  D  6) 
Montgomery    mont-gum'6r-i    22,  29 

(23,  D3) 
Montpelier  mont-pel'yer  (13,  C4) 
Montreal  mont-r£-al'*105  (107,  G5) 
Montrose  m5n-troz'  77  (76,  K  2) 
moon  276 
Moors  226 

Moosejaw  nioos'jd  (107,  D4) 
moraine  mft-ran'  64,  110,  170 
Morava   River    m&'ra-va    213  (209, 

H2) 
Moravia  mft-ra'vl-a  (183,  P4) 
Morocco  m6-rok'o  "225  (227,  C  1) 
Moscow  mos'kO  199  (201,  G  3) 
Moselle  River  mfc-zel'  191  (182,  K  4) 
Moskva  River  m5s-kva'  199* 
Mosul  mfi-sooT  (237,  E  3) 
Mount  Desert  Island  dj-zgrt'  11  (13, 

G4) 
Mount    McKinley    National    Park 

App.  v  (i^,-C4) 
Mount   Rainier  National   Park   79, 

App.  v  (73,  D  2) 
mountains  10,  63,  75,  App.  iv  ;  see 

also  mountain  names 
Mozambique  mo-zam-bek'  229  (227, 

G7) 
Mukden  mook-den'  244  (250,  L  4) 


mules  49,  116,  131 
Mulhouse  mii-looz'  (182,  K  5) 
Munich  mu'nik  191  (183,  M  4) 
Murmansk  moor-mansk'  (201,  F 1) 
Murray  River  mur'I  (358,  E  5) 
Muskogee  mus-kCgS  24  (25,  G  2) 

Nagasaki  na'ga-sa'ke  248  (250,  L  5) 
Namur  na-miir/  (182,  J  3) 
Nanking  nan-king'  (250,  K  5) 
Nantes  nants  185  (182,  F  5) 
Nantucket  nan-tuk'et  10  (13,  E  7) 
Naples  na'p'lz  211  (208,  F2) 
Naples,  Bay  of  207  (208,  F  2) 
Narragansett  Bay  nar-a-gan's6t  12 
Narvik  nar'vik  (201,  C"l) 
Nashua  na.sh'u-a  8  (18,  D  6) 
Nashville  nash'vll  22  (23,  D  1) 
Nassau  nas'6  (119,  J  2) 
Natal  na-tal'  224  (227,  G  7) 
Natchez"  nach'ez  (23,  B  4) 
national  forests  5,  29,  61-62,  99, 188 
national  parks  63,  79,  App.  v  (2-3) ; 

see  also  national  park  names 
Natural  Bridge.  Va.  36*  (35,  C  5) 
natural  bridge  in  Utah  67* 
natural  gas  16,  27,  40,  112,  200,  287 
natural  region,  definition  of  1 
natural  regions 

Africa  220  (218) 

Asia  231,  233,  240,  246,  252  (232) 

Australia  257,  261  (258) 

Europe  158-162  (161) 

North  America  1-81,  85,  86,  103- 
106,  108,  111,  121  (123) 

South  America  127-129  (126) 

United  States  1-81  (2-8) 
natural  resources 

Africa  221 

Asia  243,  246,  253 

Australia,  see  text  on  different  natu- 
ral regions  257-261 

Europe  163  ;  see  also  text  on  differ- 
ent countries 

North  America  121  ;  see  also  text 
on  different  countries 

South  America  125 ;  see  also  text 
on  different  countries 

United  States  99,   100,   278-298 ; 
see  also  text  on  different  natural 
regions  1-81 
natural  resources,  conservation  of  99, 

109,  281,  285,  287,  288,  290,  291, 
292,  293,  294,  296,  298 

naval  stores  16,  18* 
Nazareth  naz'a-reth  236* 
Nebraska  ne'-bras'ka  54  (55,  D  5) 
Neches  River  nech'ez  (25,  G  4) 
Negro  River  na'gro  132  (135,  C  3) 
negroes  90, 114, 1 1 7, 125, 217,  228,  257 
Negros  Island  na'gros  (93,  D  6) 
Nelson  River  nel'sun  (107,  E  4) 
Nenana  ng-na'na  (84,  J  2) 
Nepal  ne-p61'  254  (250,  G  6) 
Netherlands    neth'?r-landz    175-177 

(171,  K6) 
Netze  River  net'sg  (183,  0  2) 
Neuchatel  nu-sha-tel'  (1S2,  K  5) 
Neuse  River  nus  (23,  3  2) 
Neva  River  ne'va  200  (201,  F  3) 
Nevada' nS-va'da  77  (76,  E  2) 
Newark  nu'grk  ".30.  34  (35,  E  3) 
New  Bedford  bgd'fgrd  8  (13,  E  7) 
New     Brunswick     brflnz'wlk      103 

(107,    H  5) 
NewCaledonia  kai-6-do'i)i-a(f  60,  G  4) 
Newcastle  nu'kas'l  (171,  G4) 
New  England  Range  257  (258,  F  4) 
New  England  States  5-12  (13) 
Newfoundland     nu'fund-land     104, 

110,  169  (107,  3  5") 

New  Guinea  ginl  169,  262  (260,  E  2) 
New  Hampshire   hamp'shji-  10,   11, 

12  (13,  D  5) 
New  Haven  ha'v'n  8,  12  (13,  C  7) 
New  Hebrides  hgb'ri-dgz  (260,  G  3) 
New  Jersey  jgr'zl  26,  34  (35,  E  4) 
New  Mexico  77.  290  (76,  K  4) 


XVI 


INDEX  AND  PRONUNCIATIONS 


New  Orleans  orle-anz  19*  (25,  J  5) 
Newport  News  nu'pOrt  (35,  D  5) 
New  South  Wales  walz  257, 261,  262 

(260,  E  5) 
New  York,  state  of  34  (35,  D  2) 
New  York  City  30,  31*  (35,  F  3) 
New  Zealand  ze'land  263  (260,  H  6) 
Niagara  Falls  ni-ag'a-ra  39*,  41,  42 

(35,  C  2) 
Niagara  River  41,  295  (35,  C  2) 
Nicaragua  ng-kii-ra'gwa    114   (IIS, 

G5) 
Nice  ngs  185,  186*  (182) 
nickel  105,  110 

Niemen  River  ng'mgn  196  (161,  K  5) 
Niger  River  ni'jgr  (21S,  D  3) 
Nigeria  ni-je'rl-a  223,  225  (227,  D  4) 
Nile  River  nil  220,  223  (2 IS,  G  2) 
Nineveh  rim'S-ve'  236  (237,  E  3) 
Ningpo  nlng'pO'  (250,  L  6) 
Niobrara  River  ni-&-br&r/a  (55,  D  4) 
Nish  nfeh  (209,  H  2) 
nitrate  nl'trat  144*,  146,  147 
nitrogen  ni'trS-jen  16,  188,  282 
Nizhnii  Kolymsk  nyizh'nye  ko-limsk' 

240*  (250,  P  2) 
Nizhnii    Novgorod    n6v'go-rot    200 

(201,  H  3) 
Nome  n6m  86*,  293  (84,  E  2) 
Norfolk  n6r'fok  34  (35,  D  5) 
Norrkoping   nor'chu-ping  173  (201, 

C3) 
North  America  1-124  (122, 124,  opp. 

124) 
North  Cape  170  (161,  LI) 
North  Carolina  22  (23,  H  2) 
North  Dakota  da-ko'ta  54  (55,  C  2) 
Northern  Ireland  164  (171,  D  4) 
northers  53 

North  Island  203  (260,  H  5) 
North  Platte  River  plat  50  (73,  M4) 
North  Pole  266  (opp.  266) 
North  Sea  173,  189,  190  (161,  F4) 
North  Star  267,  268,  276 
Northwestern  States  72  (73) 
Northwest  Highlands   158  (161) 
Norway  n6r'wa  170-173  (201,  A  2) 
Norwich  ndr'wlch  9  (IS,  C  7) 
Nova  Scotia  no'va  sko'shya  103-104 

(107,  H  5) 
Nova  Zembla  no'va  zgm'bla  (161,  Rl) 
Nueces  River  nu-a'sas  (25",  F  5) 
Nullarbor    Plains    nuTar-bOr   (258, 

C5) 
Nuremberg  nu'rgm-bitrg  (183,  M  4) 
Nyasa,  Lake  nya'sa  (227,  G  6) 
Nyasaland  169,  223  (227,  G  6) 

Oahu  o-a'hoo  87  (84,  C  2) 
Oakland  ok'land  77  (76,  B  3) 
oases  S-a'sez  220,  220,  238,  244,  254 
oats  49,  159,  172,  196,  199,  278 
Ob  River  6b  240  (232,  E  2) 
ocean  currents  272-273  (275) 
oceans  App.  v  ;  see  also  ocean  names 
Oder  River  o'der  189,  190  (161,  3  5) 
Odessa  o-dgs'a  202  (201,  F  5) 
Ogden  og'den  56,  68,  77  (76,  II 1) 
Ohio  6-hi'o  44  (45,  F  4) 
Ohio  River  42  (3,  J  3) 
oil,  see  petroleum 
Oka  River  6-ka'  200  (201,  II 3) 
Okhotsk  Sea  o-kotsk'  (250,  N  3) 
Oklahoma  o-kla-ho'ma  24  (25,  F  2) 
Oklahoma  City  24  (25,  F  2) 
olives  71,  184,  210 
Olympia  6-lim'pI-a  (73,  C  2) 
Olympic  Mts.  72  (2,  B  1) 
Omaha  5'ma-ha  48,  49*,  54  (55,  E  5) 
Oman  6-man'  238  (250,  D  6) 
Omsk  omsk  240,  241  (250,  F  3) 
Oneida  Lake  o-ni'da  (35,  E  2) 
Ontario  6n-ta'rI-6  104,  105  (107,  F  5) 
Ontario,  Lake  41  (35,  D  2) 
Oporto  6-por'tOo  206  (208,  B2) 
Oppa  River  op'pa  190 
Orange  Free  State  224  (227,  F  7) 
oranges  17*,  71,  153,  204,  214,  236 


Oregon  or'e--gdn  72  (73,  D  4) 
Orenburg  6-ren-boorK'  (201,  L4) 
Orinoco    Lowlands    o-rl-no'ko    128 

(126,  B  2) 
Orinoco  River  137  (126,  C2) 
Orizaba,  Mt.  6-r£-sa'b;i  111  (11S,V4) 
Orleans  or-la-ax'  185  (182,  G5) 
Ormuz,  Strait  of  dr'muz  (237,  II 6) 
Oruro  6-roo'r5  143  (135,  C  4) 
Osaka  6-zii'kii  248  (250,  M  5) 
Oshkosh  osh'kosh  44  (45,  C  2) 
Ostend  ost-gnd'  (171,  J  6) 
Ottawa  ot'a-wa  106  (107,  G5) 
Ottawa  River  103,  105  (107,  G  5) 
Ouachita  Mts.  wosh'I-  ta  38  (3,  H  4) 
Ouray  oo-ra'  60  (76,  It  2) 
Owyhee  River  6-\vi'hd:  (73,  F  4) 
oysters  15,  297,  298 
Ozark  Plateau  o'ziirk  38  (3,  H  3) 

Pacific  Lowlands  80  (122,  EF  7) 
Pacific  Ocean  100,  273,  App.  v  (275) 
Padua  pad'u-a  207  (208,  F  1) 
Pago  Pago  pang's  pang'o  (03,  El) 
Paita  pi'ta  140  (135,  A  3) 
Palawan  Island  pa-la'wan  (93,  B  0) 
Palermo  pa-lgr'mo  211  (208,  F3) 
Palestine  pal'es-tin  236  (237,  D  4) 
Palo  Alto  pa'15  al'to  (76,  B  3) 
Pamir  pa-mer'  231,  233  (232,  F  5) 
Pamlico  Sound  pam'li-ko  (23,  K  2) 
Pampa  pam'pa  148*,  149  (126,  C  6) 
Panama  pan-a-mii'  114  (119,  HO) 
Panama,  city"89*  (US,  J  6) 
Panama  Canal  88-89  (119,  J6) 
Panama  Canal  Zone  88-89  (119,  J  6) 
panama  hats  138 
Pan-American  Union  101 
Panay  Island  pa-ni'  (93,  X>  5) 
paper  manufacture  9,  110,  172,  191, 

197,  248 
Papua  pa'poo-a  169,  202  (260,  E  2) 
Para  pa-ra',  see  Belem 
Paraguay    pa-ra-gwi'    120,    152-153 

(145,  D5) 
Paraguay  River  152  (12 6,  D5) 
Paramaribo  par-a-mar'I-bo  136  (135, 

D2) 
Parana  Lowlands  pa-ra-na'  129  (126) 
Parana  River  133,  152  (126,  D6) 
Paris  parts  184,  185  (182,  114) 
Paris  Basin  180,  181  (161,  F6) 
Pasadena  pas-a-de'na  78  (76,  T>  4) 
Pasig  River  pii'sig  95* 
Passaic  pa-sa'Ik  30* 
Patagonia"  pat-a-go'nl-a  150  (126,  C  7) 
Paterson  pat'gr-sgn  34^  299  (35,  E  3) 
Pawtucket  pa-tuk'et  9  (13  D  7) 
peanuts  20*,  34 
pearl  fisheries  137,  238 
Pechora  River  pa-ch6'ra  (201,  K  1) 
Peking  pe-klng'  234,  243  (250,  K  4) 
Pelee,  Mont  mO.v  pg-la'  (119,  M  5) 
Pennine  Mts.  pgn'In  166  (161,  E  5) 
Pennsylvania  pgn-sll-va'ni-a  26,  29, 

34  (35,  D3) 
peoples 

Africa  217,  219,  228  (230) 

Asia  231,  235,  238,  242,  246,  252 
(256) 

Australia  257,  263  (265) 

Europe  157,  172,  187,  203  (216) 

Hawaiian  Islands  87 

North  America  65,  83,  90, 110,  111, 
114,  117  (S2,  124) 

Philippine  Islands  92 

South  America  125,  130,  144,  150 
(156) 

See  also  races  of  men 
Peoria  pe-o'ri-a  44  (45,  C  4) 
Perm  perm  200  (201,  L  3) 
Pernambuco     p8r-nam-b6o'ko,      see 

Recife 
Persia  pur'sha  238  (250,  D  5) 
Persian  Gulf  238  (232,  D  6) 
Perth  pgrth  261,  262  (260,  B  5) 
Perth  Amboy  purth  am'boi  (35,  E  3) 
Peru  p*-ro5'  140-142  (135,  B  4) 


Peru,  Sierra  of  140,  141 
Peru,  Illinois  41  (45,  C  4) 
Peshawar  pe-sha'war  (250,  F  5) 
Petrograd  pye-tro-griit'  200  (201,  F  3) 
petroleum  pe-tro'le-um  16,  27,  40,74, 

75*,  112,  200,  253,  255,  287-288 
petroleum  products  27,  288 
Philadelphia  fll-a-deTfl-a  17,  31,  32, 

299  (35,  E  4)" 
Philippine  Islands  fll'I-pin   92,  95, 

100  (93) 
Philippopolis  fll-ip-op'6-lls  214  (209, 

la) 

Phoenix  fe'nlks  68,  77  (76,  G  5) 
phosphate  rock  f  os'f  at  15, 22, 109,  282 
Piedmont  Belt  ped'mont  18,  30  (3) 
Pierre  per  54  (55,  C  3) 
Pikes  Peak  piks  (76,  L  2) 
Pilcomayo  River  pel-ko-ma'yo  (126, 

C5) 
Pilsen  pll'zgn  196  (183,  N  4) 
Pindus  Mts.  pln'diis  (161,  K  7) 
pineapples  17*,  87,  90,  115*,  117 
pipe  lines  for  oil  16,  40,  200,  288* 
Piraeus  pi-re'us  214  (209,  H  3) 
Pisa  pe'sa  209  (208,  F  2) 
Pittsburgh  plts'bfirg  29,  32,  33,  41, 

289  (35,  C3) 
placer  mining  plas'Gr  70,  293* 
Plains 
Arctic  Coastal  86  (122,  B  4) 
Atlantic  Coastal  14  (3,  K  4) 
Central  (Europe)  158  (161) 
Central  (North  America)  39,  105 

(122) 
China  233,  242  (232,  K  5) 
Coastal  (Australia)  261 
Ganges  233,  253  (232,  G6) 
Great  (Australia)  257  (25S,  D  4) 
Gleat   (North    America)    53,    106 

(122) 
Gulf  Coastal  14,  111  (122) 
Hungary  162,  194  (161,  J  6) 
Indus  233,  253  (232,  F  5) 
Nullarbor  (Australia)  (258,  C  5) 
Po210  (161,  G6) 
Siberian  231  (232,  E2) 
planets  276 

Plata  River  pla'ta  151, 154  (12 6,  D  6) 
Plateaus 

Anatolia  235  (232,  B  5) 
Appalachian  (3) 
Arabian  233  (232,  C  6) 
Barka  (218,  F 1) 
Bohemia  195  (161,  II  6) 
Bolivia  142  (126,  C  4) 
Central  (Brazil)  131  (126,  D  4) 
Central  (France)  180  (161,  F  6) 
Colorado  65,  67  (2,  D  3) 
Columbia  65,  66  (2,  CI) 
East  Turkestan  233  (232,  G  4) 
Iberian  204  (161,  D  7) 
India  (Dekkan)  233  (232,  F  6) 
Iran  233,  254  (232,  D  5) 
Mexican  111  (122,  G  9) 
Mongolia  233  (232,  K  4) 
Northern  Interior  (Canada)  (122, 

DO) 
Ozark  38  (3,  H  3) 
Patagonia  (126,  C  7) 
South  African  220  (218,  E  0) 
Tibet  233,  245  (232,  G  5) 
Transylvania  202  (161,  K  6) 
Western  (Australia)  259  (25S) 
Western  (North  America)  65,  108 

(122) 
Yukon  86  (122,  C  4) 
platinum  plitt-I-nijm  138,  198 
Piatt  National  Park  plat  App.  v 
Platte  River  plat  (2,  G  2) 
Plymouth  plim'uth  7  (13,  E  7) 
Po,  Plain  of  the  "203,  210  (161,  G  6) 
Po  River  207  (161,  G  7) 
Pocatello  po-ka-tel'o  72  (73,  H  4) 
Poland  po'land  193,  196,  197  (201, 

C4) 
polar  regions  266  (opp.  266) 
Ponce  pOn'sa  91  (118,  C  6) 


Pontchartrain    Lake    pon'char-tran 

(25,  J  4) 
Popocatepetl,   Mt.    po-po-ka-ta'p6t'l 

111  (US,  E4) 
population  App.  viii-x  (82, 124, 156, 

216,  230,  256,  265) 
Porcupine  R.  por'kft-pin  106  (84,K  1) 
Portage,  N.  Y.  por'taj  37*  (35,  C  2) 
Portage,  Wis.  46  (45,  C  3) 
Port  Arthur,  Canada  105*  (107,  F  5) 
Port  Arthur,  China  (247,  H  5) 
Port  au  Prince  port  0  prlns'  120  (119, 

K4) 
Port  Elizabeth  224,  225*  (227,  F  8) 
Portland,  Me.  port'land  8  (13,  Y.  5) 
Portland,  Oregon  74^  78  (73,  C  3) 
Port  of  Spain  span  (119,  M  5) 
Porto  Rico   por'to  re'ko   90-91,  115 

(119,  L  4) 
Port  Said  port  sa-gd'  (227,  G  1) 
Portsmouth  ports'muth  8  (13,  E5) 
Portugal  por'tft-gal  206  (208,  B  3) 
Portuguese  East  Africa  por'tft-gez, 

see  Mozambique 
Portuguese   Guinea  gin'I   229  (227, 

B3) 
Posen  po'zgn  (183,  P  2) 
potatoes  57,  159,  172,  196, 199 
Potomac  River  pS-to'inak  101  (3,  L  3) 
Potosi  po-tft-sg'  143  (135,  C  4) 
pottery  pot'gr-I  16,  105,  176,  248 
Poughkeepsie  po-klp'sl  (35,  F  3) 
poultry  28*,  49,  283 
Prague  prag  190,  195  (183,  O  3) 
Presidential  Range  12  (13,  D4) 
Pressburg,  see  Bratislava 
Pretoria  prg-to'rl-a  224  (227,  F  7) 
Pribilof  Islands  prg-be--16f  (84,  D  3) 
Prince  Edward  Island  103  (107 ,  H  5) 
Prince  of  Wales,  Cape  85  (84,  E  1) 
Prince  Rupert  roo'pgrt  (107,  A  4) 
Prince  William  Sound  86  (S4,  J  2) 
Pripet  River  prip'gt  (201,  E  4) 
Proctor  prok'tgr  9  (13,  B  5) 
Progreso  pro-gra'so  (118,  G  3) 
Providence  prov'I-dgns  8  (13,  D  7) 
Provincetown  17,  19  (13,  E  6) 
Provo  pro'vo  68  (76,  H  1) 
Pruth  River  prooth  (201,  E  5) 
Przemysl  pshe'mlshl-y'  (1S3,  T  4) 
Puebla  pwa'blii  113  (118,  E  4) 
Pueblo  pwgb'15  57  (76,  L  2) 
Puerto     Barrios    pwgr'to    bar're-Os 

(118,  G  4) 
Puerto   Colombia    ko-lom'be-a    138 

(135,  B  1) 
Puerto  Cort6s  kor-tas'(.a<?,  G  4) 
Puerto  Plata  pla'ta  (119,  K  4) 
Puget  Sound  pu'jgt  75  (73,  C  2) 
Puget  Trough  (2,  B 1) 
Puno  pOo'no  128*_(i45,  B  4) 
Punta  Arenas   poon'ta  a-ra'nas   147 

(145,  B  8) 
pyramids  plr'a-midz  222 
Pyrenees  Mts."pir'*-ngz  160, 180, 204 

(161,  E  7) 

quarries  9,  181,  197,  211,  294 
Quebec  kwg-bgk'  104  (107,  G  4) 
Quebec,  City  of  104  (107,  G  5) 
Quebracho  ka-brii'cli6  148,  149,  152 
Queensland     kwenz'land    257,    262 

(260,  E  4) 
Queenstown.  See  Cobb, 
Quetta  kwgt'a  254*  (250,  E  5) 
Quincy,  Illinois  kwln'sl  (.97,  H  3) 
Quincy,  Mass.  kwin'zl  9*  (13,  E  6) 
Quito  kg'to  139  (135,  B  3) 

races  of  men 
black  race,  see  negroes 
brown  race  87,  263,  264 
white  race  157,  231,  235,  252 
yellow  race  157,  217,  242,  246,  249 
Racine  ra-sen'  44,  50  (45,  D  3) 
railroads"  27*,  90,  125,  141,  149,  192, 
193,  224,  240,  259,  300*  (96-97, 
App.  Plate  B) 


INDEX  AND  PRONUNCIATIONS 


xvn 


rainfall  273-274  (82,  124,  156,  216, 

230,  256,  265,  275);  see  also  text 

on  climate 
Rainier,  Mt.  ra-ner'  78*,  81*  2,   B  1) 
Raleigh  ro'll  22  (23,  H  2) 
ranch  life  56,  60 
Rangoon  ran-goon'  (250,  H  7) 
rapids  10,  27 

Raritan  Bay  rail-tan  30* 
Reading  rgd'hig  33 "(35,  E  3) 
Recife  ra-sg'fa  132  (135,  F  3) 
Red  River  49,  106  (122,  E  10) 
Red  Sea  (218,  G  2) 
Reggio  red'j5  (209,  G  3) 
Regina   r6-ji'na  108  (107,  D  4) 
Reims  remz  (182,  J  4) 
reindeer  83*,  158,  172*,  240 
Reno  re'no  68,  77  (76,  D  2) 
Reunion  Island  rg-un'yun  186  (227, 

J  7) 
Reval  ra'val  197  (201,  D  3) 
Reykjavik  ra'kya-vgk  175  (107,  M  3) 
Rhine  River  rin  175,  189,  190,  191 

(161,  G  5) 
Rhode  Island  rod  12  (13,  D  7) 
Rhodesia    rS-dg'zhl-a    or  rft-de'zl-a 

223  (227,  F  6) 
Rhone  River  ron  184  (182,  J  6) 
rice  15,  94,  131,  243,  248,  253,  279 
Richmond  rich'mund  17,  34  (35,  D  5) 
Riga   re'ga  197,  200  (201,  D  3) 
Rio  de  Janeiro  re'o  da  zha-na'ro  132, 

133*  (145,  E  5) 
Rio  de  Oro  O'ro  229  (227,  B  2) 
Rio  Grande  gran'da  (2-3,  G  5) 
Rio  Muni  mou'ne  229  (227,  E  4) 
Riukiu  Islands  re"-6o'kyod'  (247,  J  7) 
rivers,  navigable   15,  42,   130,   152, 

165,  184,  189,  193,  198,  240,  242, 

296,  App.  iv-v 
Riviera  re-vya'ra  185, 186*  (208,  E  2) 
Rochester   roeli'gs-tgr  34  (35,  D  2) 
Rockaway  Beach  rSk'a-wS  19,  30* 
Rockford  44  (45,  C  3)  " 
Rock  Springs  (73,  K  5) 
Rocky  Mountain  National  Park  62*, 

63,  App.  v  (76',  L  1) 
Rocky  Mts.  59-64,  103  (2,  122) 
Rome  207*,  211  (208,  F  2) 
Roraima,  Mt.  ro-rl'ma  App.  iv  (135, 

C2) 
Rosa,   Monte   mon'ta  ro'za  App.  iv 

(208,  E  1) 
Rosario  ru-sa'rS-o  151  (145,  C  6) 
Rotterdam  rot'Sr-dam,  177  (171,  K  6) 
Rouen  rwiis  181,  185  (182,  G  4) 
rubber  131,  142,  221,  251,  255,  299 
rubber  manufacture  299-300 
Ruhr  River  roor  (182,  K  3) 
Rumania  rdo-ina'ni-a  202  (209,  H  1) 
Rumford  Village  rfnn'fgrd  9  (13,  E  4) 
Russia  rush'a  198-200  (201) 
Rutland  rfit'fand  9  (13,  C  5) 
Ruwenzori  Mt.    roo-wgn-za're",    220 

(218,  F  4) 
rye  159,  172,  196 

Sabine  River  sa-bgn'  (15,  H  4) 
Saco  sa'ko  8  (13,  E  5) 
Sacramento  sak-ra-mgn'tO  78  (76,  C  2) 
Saddleback  Mt.  12  (13,  E  4) 
Saginaw   sag'i-na  44  (45,  F  3) 
Sahara  Desert   sa-ha'ra    219*,    220 

(218,  C  2) 
Sahara  Tableland  220  (2 IS,  D  3) 
Saigon  si-gon'  (250,  J  7) 
Saima  Canal  sl'ma  197*  (201,  E  2) 
St.  Croix  Island  sant  kroi'  91  (119, 

M4) 
St.  Elias,  Mt.  sant  e-li'as85  (122,  C  5) 
St.   Etienne    sax-ta-tyfin'    181,    184 

(182,  J  6) 
St.  Francois  Mountains  sftnt  fran'sis 

38  (3,  H  3) 
St.   Gotthard   tunnel   goth'ard   188 

(183,  L  5) 
St.  Helena  Island  hg-lg'na  169  (227, 

C6) 


St.  John,  New  Brunswick  103*  (107, 

115) 
St.  John  Island  91  (US,  F  6) 
St.  Johns,  Newfoundland  110  (107, 

J  5) 
St.  Joseph  54  (55,  F  6) 
St.  Lawrence  River  42,  52, 104  (107, 

H5) 
St.  Louis  loo'Is  or  lool  48,  64  (55, 

HO) 
St.  Marys  River  41  (45,  E  1) 
St.  Michael  mi'kgl  86  (84,  F  2) 
St.  Nazaire  s&n  na-zar'  (182,  E  5) 
St.  Paul  sant  48  (55,  G  3) 
St.  Pierre  Island  saN  pyar'  186  (107, 

J  5) 
St.  Quentin  kiiN-taN'  181  (182,H4) 
St.  Roque,  Cape  san  ro'ka  272  (135, 

F3) 
St.  Thomas  sant  91  (118,  E  6) 
St.  Thomas  Island  91  (119,  M4) 
Sakhalin  Island   sa-Ka-lygn'   (250, 

N3) 
Salado  River  sa-la'tb5  149  (126,  C  5) 
Salem,  Mass.  sa'lem  9*  (13,  E 6) 
Salisbury  sdlz'bgr-I  (227,  G  6) 
salmon  sam'un  74,  75*,  85,  297 
Saloniki  sa-lu-ne'ke  214,  215*  (209, 

H2) 
salt  16,  27,  31,  41,  68,  197 
Salt  Lake  City  68  (76,  H  1) 
Salt  River  69*  (76,  H  5) 
Salvador  sal-va-dOr'  114  (118,  G5) 
Salzburg  zalts'boorK  (183,  N  5) 
Samar  Island  sa'mar  (93,  E  5) 
Samara  sa-ma'ra  200  (201,  K  4) 
Samarkand  sam-ar-kant'   239  (250, 

E5) 
Samoa  Islands  sa-mo'a  95.  100  (93, 

E  1 ;  App.  Plate  B,  A  5) 
Sana  sa-na'  (237,  E  7) 
San  Antonio  san  an-tO'nl-o  24  (25, 

E5) 
San  Bernardino  Mts.  bur-nar-de'nO 

(76,  E4) 
sand  dunes  18,  176,  177,  295* 
San  Diego  san  de-a'go  (76,  E  5) 
sandstone  5,  43,  294 
Sandusky  san-dus'kl  47  (45,  F  4) 
Sandy  Hook  19  (35,  F3) 
San  Francisco   san  fran-sls'ko    75, 

77,  78,  79  (76',  B8) 
Sangre  de  Cristo  Mts.   san'gi-i  dft 

kr&'to"   (76',  L3) 
San  Joaquin  River  san  wii-ken'  (76, 

C3) 
San  Jose,  Calif.  h6-sa'  78  (76,  C  3) 
San  Josg,  Costa  Rica  san  h5-sa'  (119, 

H6) 
San  Juan  hoo-an'  90*,  91  (119,  D6) 
San  Juan  Mts.  san  hwan  60*  (76, 

K3) 
San  Luis  Potosi  san  loo-es'  p5-tS-sg' 

113  (118,  D3) 
San  Marino  ma-re'n5  212  (208,  F2) 
San  Salvador,  city  sal-va-dOr'  (118, 

G5) 
San  Salvador  Island  (119,  K  3) 
Santa  Fe  san'ta  fa'  (76,  L  4) 
Santa  Marta  san'ta  inar'ta  138  (135, 

Bl) 
Santiago,  Chile  san-te-a'go  146,  147 

(145,  B  6) 
Santiago,  Cuba  116  (119,  J  4) 
Santiago  River  112*  (118,  C3) 
Santo  Domingo  san'to  dS-mln'go  120 

(119,  L4) 
Santos  sas'toosh  131,  132  (145,  E  5) 
Sao    Francisco    River    sown    fran- 

sesh'koo  131,  133  (126,  E  4) 
Saone  River  son  184,  App.  iv  (182, 

J  5) 
Sao  Paulo  sown  pow'ldo  131, 132  (145, 

E5) 
Sao  Salvador  sal-va-d5r'   132  (135, 

F4) 
Sardinia  sar-dinl-a  207  (208,  E  2) 
Sarre  Basin  sar  or  zar  186  (182,  K  4) 


Saskatchewan  sas-kach'e"-won    104, 

108  (107,  D4) 
Saskatchewan  River  App.  v  (122, 

D9) 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  soo  sant  nia'ri  301 

(107,  F5) 
savanna  sa-van'a  129,  221 
Savannah,"  Georgia  18*,  22  (23,  G  3) 
Save  River  sav  (183,  O  5) 
Sawatch  Mts.  sa-wach'  (76,  K  2) 
Sayan  Mountains  sa-yan'  (232,  H  3) 
Scandinavian     Peninsula     skan-dl- 

na'vl-an  170-173  (161,  H3) 
Scheldt  River  skglt  178  (171,  K6) 
Schenectady  skg-ngk'ta-dl  31,  32*, 

291*  (35,  F2) 
Schleswig  shlas'vlK  (171,  M  4) 
Schuylkill  River  skool'kil   17,  32*, 

33  (35,  E3) 
Scilly  Islands  sll'i  (171,  D  7) 
Scotland    skot'land    164,    165,    168 

(171,  E3) 
Scranton  skran'tgn  29,  33  (35,  E  3) 
seals  86*,  173,  298 
seasons  270 

Seattle  sg-at"l  78  (78,  C  2) 
Seine  River  san  184  (161,  F6) 
Senegal  s6n-S-gol'  (227,  B  3) 
Seoul  sg-ool',  see  Keijo 
Sequoia  Nat.  Park  sg-kwoi'a  App.  v 
Serajevo  ser'a-ya-vo"  (183,  It  7) 
Serbia  sgr'bl-a  (209,  H  2) 
settlements,  early,  see  exploration 
Sevastopol  se-vas't6-pol  (201,  F  6) 
Seville  s6v'U  or  sg-vil'  205  (208,  B  3) 
Seward  su'ard  86  (84,  J  2) 
Seward  Peninsula  (122,  C  3) 
Shanghai  shang-ha'I  244  (250,  L  5) 
Shantung  sban'toong'  244  (247,  G5) 
Shasta,  Mt.  sha-s'ta  80  (2,  B2) 
Sheboygan  shS-boi'gan  (45,  D3) 
sheep  56,  57,  60,  112,  149,  154,  166, 

204,  257,  263,  283,  App.  iv 
Sheffield  shef'eld  167  (171,  G  5) 
Shenandoah  River  shen-an-do'a  (35, 

C4) 
Sheridan  sherT-dan  56*,  57  (73,  L  3) 
Shetland  Islands  sliet'land  (161,  E  3) 
shipbuilding  8,   26,   34,   168,   169*, 

173*,  174,  176 
shoe  manufacture  8,  9,  33 
Shoshone,  Colo.  sh6-slio'ne  62 
Shoshone  Falls,  Idaho  (73,  G  4) 
Si  River  se  244  (232,  J  6) 
Siam  si-am'  249,  251  (250,  J  7) 
Siam,  Lowlands  of  233  (232,  J  7) 
Siberia  sl-be'ri-a  240-241  (250) 
Siberian  Highlands  240 
Siberian  Plains  231  (232,  E  2) 
Siberian  railroad  240,  241 
Sicily  sls'l-ll  207,  211  (208,  F  3) 
Siena  sy6'na  211  (208,  F2) 
Sierra  Leone  sl-eVa  lg-5'ne  223,  225 

(227,  B  4) 
Sierra  Madre  ma'drft 
Eastern  111  (122,  G  9) 
Southern  (122,  H  10) 
Western  111  (122,  F  8) 
Sierra  Morena  sygr'ra  m5-ra'na  204 

(161,  E  8) 
Sierra  Nevada,  Spain  na-va'tha  160, 

204  (161,  E  8) 
Sierra  Nevada,  U.  S.  sl-gr'a  nS-va'da 

79,  80  (2,  B  3) 
Sikhim  sik'im  252 
Silesia  sl-le'sln-a  (183,  V  3) 
silk  184,  211,  23~6,  239,  242,  248,  299 
silk  manufacture  9,   34,   168,   184, 

211,244,246*,  248,  299 
silver  68,  83,  105,  112,  115*,  141,  293 
Silverton  60,  61*  (76,  K  3) 
Simla  sim'la  (250,  F  6) 
Sinai,  Mt.  si'ni  234*,  App.  iv  (237, 

C5) 
Singapore  sin-ga-por'  251  (250,  J  8) 
Sinkiang  sln-kySng'  245  (2 47,  B  4) 
Sioux  City  soo  54  (55,  E  4) 
Sioux  Falls  54  (55,  E  4) 


sisal  hemp  s£-sal'  or  sls'al  117 

Sitka  slt'ka  (84,  L  3) 

Skagerrack  sgag'gr-rak  (161,  G  4) 

Skagway  skag'wS  109  (84,  L  3) 

Skutari  sk6o'ta-re  233*  (250,  A  4) 

slate  294 

Smolensk  smo-lygnsk'  (201,  F  4) 

Smyrna  smOr'na  236  (250,  A  5) 

Snake  River  66" (2,  C 1) 

Sofia  so-f6'a  214  (209,  H  2) 

soils  28,  40,  278,  281,  282 

solar  system  276 

Solomon  Islands  sol'6-mun  169  (260, 

F2) 
Somaliland  s6-rna'le"-land 
British  223  (227,  H  4) 
French  228'  (227,  II  8) 
Italian  229  (227,  H  4) 
Somme  River  som  (182,  H  4) 
Sonoran  Desert  s6-n6'ran  111  (122, 

F8) 
Soo  Canals  41  (45,  E 1) 
Soochow  soo'cho'  (247,  H  6) 
South    Africa,   Union   of   223,  224 

(227,  F  8) 
South  African  Plateaus  220(21S,E6) 
South  America   125-166  (126,  135, 

145,  156,  opp.  156) 
South  Australia  262  (260,  D  4) 
South    Australian    Highlands    257 

(258,  D  5) 
South  Bend  43  (45,  T>  4) 
South  Carolina  22  (23,  G  3) 
South  Chicago  41,  50* 
South  China  Sea  249  (250,  K  7) 
South  Dakota  54,  58  (55,  C  3) 
Southern    Highlands    (Africa)    220 

(218,  F  8) 
Southern    and    Eastern    Lowlands 

(Asia)  233 
Southern  Lowlands  (Europe)  162 
Southern  Mountains  and  Plateaus 

(Europe)  160 
Southern  states  (eastern)  22  (23) 
Southern  states  (western)  24  (25) 
South  Island  263  (260,  G  6) 
South  Manchester  9  (13,  C  7) 
South  Pole  266  (opp.  266) 
Southwest    Africa    224,    228    (227, 

E6) 
Southwestern  states  77  (76) 
soya  bean  so'ya  243 
Spain  163,  2042205  (208,  C  2) 
Spartanburg  spar'tan-burg  (23,  G  2) 
spices  30,  177,  251 
Spitzbergen  spits'ber-ggn  (250,  A  1) 
Spokane  spC-kan'  68  (73,  F  2) 
sponges  15,  117 
Springfield,  111.  47  (45,  C  5) 
Springfield,  Mass.  9  (13,  C  6) 
Springfield,  Mo.  38  (55,  G  7) 
Stanley  Falls  229  (218,  F  5) 
Stanovoi  Mts.  sta-n6-voi'  (232,  U  3) 
stars  276 

Staten  Island  stat'en  30*  (35,  E  3) 
steel,  see  iron  and  steel  manufactures 
steppes  steps  159,  199,  239,  240 
Stettin  shtg-ten'  189,  192  (183,  0  2) 
Stewart  Island  stu'grt  263  (260,  G6) 
Stockholm  stok'holm  173  (201,  C  3) 
Stockton  stSk'tun  78  (76,  C  3) 
Straits  Settlements  251  (250,  J  8) 
Strasbourg  stras'burg  186  (182,  K4) 
Stromboli  str6m'bS-le  (161,  J  8) 
Sucre  soo'kra  143  (135,  C  4) 
Sudan  sod-dan'  221  (218,  C  3) 
Sudbury  sud'bgr-I  105  (107,  F  5) 
Suez,  Isthmus  of  soo-gz'  21 7  (218,  G 1) 
Suez  Canal  217  (218,  G  1) 
sugar  and  sugar  cane  15,  87,  90,  116, 

131,  139,  255,  279 
sugar  beet  57,  77,  159,  181,  190,  279 
sugar  refining  17*,  30,  176 
Sullys  Hill  Nat.  Park  sullz  App.  v 
sulphur  15,  211 

Sulu  Archipelago  soo'loo  (93,  C  8) 
Sumatra  soo-ma'tra  255  (250,  J  9) 
sun  170,  172,  270,  276 


XVlll 


INDEX  AND  PRONUNCIATIONS 


Sunapee,  Lake  sfin'a-pg  5*  (IS,  C  5) 
Sunda  Islands  sfin'da  (260,  B  2) 
Sungari  River  soon-ga-re'  (250,  L  4) 
Superior  44,  47,  300*  (45,  A 1) 
Superior,  Lake  41,  52  (45,  D  1) 
Surabaya  soo-ra-bii'ya  (258,  B  2) 
Susquehanna    River    sus-kwe"-han'a 

33  (35,  D  3) 
Swaziland  swa'zg-land  223  {227,  G  7) 
Sweden  swe'den  170,  172  (201) 
swine  48,  49*,"  105,  194,  243,  283 
Switzerland    swlt'zgr-land    187-188 

(182,  K  5) 
Sydney,  Australia  262  (260,  F  5) 
Sydney,  Canada  103,  104  (107,  115) 
Syr  River  sir  (232,  E  4) 
Syracuse  sir'a-kus  31  (35,  D  2) 
Syria  slrl-a  231,  236  (250,  B  5) 

Table  Mountain  224* 
Tabriz  ta-brez'  (250,  C  5) 
Tacoma  ta-k5'ma  78,  286  (73,  C  2) 
Taganrog  ta-gan-r6k'  (201,  G  5) 
Tagus  R.  ta'gus  204*,  206  (208,  B  3) 
Tahoe,  Lake  ta'ho  (76,  C  2) 
taiga  ti'ga  231,  240 
Taiwan  ti-wan'  249  (250,  L  6) 
Tallahassee  tal-a-has'g  (23,  E  4) 
Tampa  tam'pa  18*,  22  (23,  E  6) 
Tampico  tam-pg'ko  113  (118,  E  3) 
Tanana  River  ta-na-na'  86  (84,  J  2) 
Tananarivo  ta-na-na-re'vo  (227,  H  6) 
Tanganyika,  Lake  tan-gan-yg'kii  223 

(227,  F  5) 
Tanganyika  Terr.  223, 228  (227,  G  5) 
Tangier  tan-jgr'  226*  (227,  C  1) 
Tarim  River  ta-rem'  (250,  G  4) 
Tashkend  tash-kent'  239  (250,  E  4) 
Tasmania  taz-ma'ni-a  262  (260,  E  6) 
Taurus  Mts.  to'rus  (232,  B  5) 
tea  243,  248,  253~  254,  279 
Tegucigalpa    tjt-goo-sg-gal'pa    (122, 

1111) 
Teheran  tg-h'ran'  239  (250,  D  5) 
Tehuantepec,    Isthmus    of    ti-wan- 

ta-pgk'  (122,  H10) 
Telluride  tel'u-rid  60,  121*  (76,  K  3) 
temperate  zones  123,  270,  274 
temperature  66,  272-274  (275) 
Tennessee  tgn-e-sg'  22  (23,  D  2) 
Terre  Haute  tgr'g  hot'  44  (45,  D  5) 
Texas  tgk'sas  16,  24  (25,  E  4) 
Thames  River  tgmz  165  (171,  G  6) 
Thrace  thras  (208-209,  J  2) 
Thiiringer  Wald  tii'ring-gr  valt'  (183, 

M3) 
Tiber  River  ti'bgr  211  (208,  F2) 
Tibesti  Mts.  tl-bgs'te  220  (218,  E  2) 
Tibet  tl-bgf  or  tib'et  245  (250,  G  5) 
Tibet,  Plateau  of  233,  245  (282,  G  5) 
Tien  Shan  Mts.  tl-en'shan'  (282,~E4) 
Tientsin  ti-gn'tsgn'  244  (250,  K  5) 
tierra  caliente  tyer'ra  ka-lygn'ta  112, 

114 
Tierra  del  Fuego  del  f  wa'g5  150(145, 

C8) 
tierra  fria  fre'a  112, 114 
tierra  templada  tgm-pla'tha  112, 114 
Tiflis  tye-flyfe'  (201,  H  6) 
Tigris  River  H'grls  236  (232,  C  5) 
Timan  Range  te-man'  198  (161,  F  2) 
Timbuktu  tlm-buk'too  228  (227,  C  3) 
tin  58,  142,  251,  255 
Tirana  tg-rii'na  213  (208,  G  2) 
Tisza  River  tg'so  (183,  S  5) 
Titicaca,  Lake  tit-g-ka'ka  128*,  142 

(126,  C  4) 
tobacco  5,  48,  90,  116,  131,  204 
Tobolsk  tft-bolsk'  (250,  E  3) 
Tokyo  to'kg-5  248,  249*  (250,  M  6) 
Toledo,  Ohio  tS-lg'do  44,  47  (45,  F  4) 
Toledo,  Sp.  tfc-la'tho  204*  (208,  C  3) 
Tolima,  Mt.  t8-lg'ma  App.  iv  (136, 

B2) 
Tomsk  tOmsk  241  (250,  G3) 
Tonga  Islands  tS'nga  169 
Tonopah  to'no-pa  68  (76,  E  2) 
Topeka  to-pe'ka  (55,  F  6) 


tornadoes  tor-na'doz  53 

Toronto  to-ron't6  106  (107,  G  5) 

torrid  zone  270 

Toulon  too-ldu'  185  (182,  3  7) 

Toulouse  too-looz'  185  (182,  G  7) 

Tours  toor  185  (182,  G  5) 

trade  routes  (App.  Plate  B);  see  also 

railroads  and  waterways 
trade  winds  272 
Transcaspia  trans-kas'pl-a  239  (250, 

D4) 
transportation  301-302  (App.  Plate 

B) ;  see  railroads  and  waterways 
Transvaal  trans-val'  224  (227,  F  7) 
Transylvania,   Plateau  of    tran'sll- 

va'nl-a  202  (161,  K  6) 
Trentino  trgn-tg'nO  (183,  M  5) 
Trenton  trgn'tiin  34  (35,  E  3) 
Trieste  trg-gst'"or  trg-gs'ta  212  i 

Fl) 
Trinidad,  Colorado  trlnl-dad  57  (76, 

L3) 
Trinidad  Island  120  (126,  C  1) 
Tripoli  trlp'6-ll  229  (227,  E  1) 
Tromso  trOms'u  173  (201,  C  1) 
Trondhjem  tron'ygm  172  (201,  B  2) 
tropics  269 
Troy  troi  31  (35,  F  2) 
Tsaidam  Basin  tsi'dam  (232,  H  5) 
Tucson  too-win'  (76,  H  5) 
Tucuman  too-koo-man'  151  (145,  C5) 
Tula  too'la  200  (201,  G  4) 
Tulsa  tul'sa  24  (25,  G  1) 
tundra  tdon'dra  86,  158,  163,  240 
Tunis  tu'ms  228  (227,  D  1) 
Turan,    Lowland    of    too-ran'    231 

(232,  D  4) 
Turin  tu'rln  207,  211  (208,  E  1) 
Turkestan  toor-kg-stan' 
Eastern  or  Chinese  245  (250,  G  4) 
Western  234,  239  (250,  E  4) 
Turkey  215,  235  (250,  A  5) 
Turks  157,  215,  217,  235 
turpentine  16,  284 
turtles  15,  117,  129»,  137 
Tutuila  t<3o-too-e'la  95  (93,  E 1) 
Tuxpam  tods'pan  (118,  E  3) 
Tyrol  tir'ol  (208,  F  1) 

Ufa  65'f  a  (201,  L  4) 
Uganda  6o-giin'da  223  (227,  G  4) 
Uinta  Mts.  u-In'ta  77  (2.  D  2) 
Ujiji  oo-je'jg  223  (227,  G  6) 
Ukraine  u'krau  202  (201,  E  5) 
Ulm  oolm  190,  191  (183,  M  4) 
Uncompahgre  Valley  tin-kom-pa'gre 

(76,  K  2) 
Ungava  Bay  tin-ga'va  104  (107,  H  4) 
United  States  1-82,  96-102,  277-304 
(2-3,  13,  23,  25,  85,  45,  55,  73, 
76,  82,  opp.  82,  96-97) 
Possessions  83-95  (84,  03)  ;  see  also 
App.  viii 
Uplands 

Brittany  180  (161,  E  6) 
East  Siberian  231  (232,  H  2) 
Finland  (161,  L  3) 
Laurentian  104  (122,  D 10) 
Upsala  tip-sa'la  170*,  173  (201,  C  3) 
Ural  Mts.  fi'ral  198  (161,  S  3) 
Urga  oor'ga  245  (250,  J  4) 
Uruguay  oo-roo-gwl'  154  (145,  D  6) 
Uruguay  River  133  (126,  D  6) 
Uspallata   Pass   oos-pal-ya'ta  (145, 

C6) 
Utah  fl'ta  or  fi'ta  77  (76,  H  2) 
Utica  u'ti-ka  31  (35,  E  2) 
Utrecht  u'tfgkt  177  (171,  K  5) 

Valdai  Hills  val'dl  (161,  M  4) 
Valdez  val'dgz  (S4,  J  2) 
Valencia  va-lgn'shl-a  205  (208,  C  3) 
Valenciennes  va-lax-sygn'  181  (182, 

H3) 
Valladolid  viil-ya-tho-leth'  (208,  C  2) 
Valley  of  California  71  (2.  B  3) 
Valley  of  Chile,  Central  146  (126,  B  6) 
Valley  of  Victoria  257  (258,  E  5) 


) 


Valparaiso  val-pa-ri'so  144, 146  (145, 

B6) 
Vancouver  van-koo'vgr  108  (107,  B  5) 
Vancouver  Island  108  (107,  B  5) 
Vardar  River  var-dar'  213  (209,  H'2) 
Varna  var'na  214  (209,  J  2) 
Venezuela  vgn-6-zwe'la  136  (185,  C  2) 
Venice  vgnls  210,  2\2~(208,  F  1) 
Vera  Cruz  va'ra  kroos'  113  (118,  E  4) 
Verdun  vgr-duu'  (182,  J  4) 
Vermont  ver-mont'  8,  9,  12  (IS,  C  5) 
Vesuvius,  Mt.  ve-su'vl-us  207  (161, 

H7) 
Viborg  vg'borK  197*  (201,  E  2) 
Vicksburg  viks'burg  22  (23,  B  3) 
Victoria,   Australia  vik-to'ri-a   257, 

262  (260,  E  5) 
Victoria,  Canada  108  (107,  B  5) 
Victoria,  Hongkong  244  (250,  K  6) 
Victoria  Falls,  Africa  219*  (218,  F  6) 
Victorian  Highlands  257  (258,  E  5) 
Victoria  Nyanza,  Lake  nyan'za  223 

(227,  G  5) 
vicuna  vi-koon'ya  141 
Vienna  vg-gn'a  193  (183,  P  4) 
Vienne  River  vygn  (182,  G  5) 
Vigo  ve'go  (208,  B  2) 
Villa  Rica  vgl'ya  rg'ka  153  (145,  D6) 
Vilna  vgl'na  197  (201,  E  4) 
Virginia  vgr-jinl-a  34  (35,  C  5) 
Virginia  City,  Montana  60  (73,  J  3) 
Virginia  City,  Nevada  68  (76,  D  2) 
Virgin  Islands  91  (119,  M  4) 
Vistula  River  vls'tft-la  196  (161,  J  5) 
Vladivostok     vla^dyi-vos-tok'     241 

(250,  M4) 
volcanoes  v61-ka'n5z  80,  85,  87,  111, 

138,  175,  207,  246 
Volga  River  vol'ga  198  (161,  P  5) 
Vosges  Mts.  vozh"l80  (161,  G6) 

Wabash  River  wo'bSsh  52  (45,  T)  4) 
Waco  wa'ko  24  (25,  F  4) 
Wake  I.  wak  (App.  Plate  B,  8  4) 
Wales  walz  164,  165  (171,  F  5) 
Walfish  Bay  wol'flsh  (218,  E  7) 
Walla  Walla  wol'a  wol'a  (73,  E  2) 
Wall  of  China,  Great  242*,  243  (250, 

J  5) 
Waltham  wSl'tham  9*  (13,  D  6) 
Warsaw  war'sa  196  (201,  D  4) 
Wasatch  Mts.  w6'sach  77  (2,  D  2) 
Washington  101,  102*  (35,  D  4) 
Washington,  Mt.  10,  12,  273*,  App. 

iv  (13,  D  4) 
Washington,  state  of  72  (73,  E  2) 
water  295-297 
water  buffalo  94,  243*,  253 
Waterbury  wo'ter-li6r-I  9  (13,  B  7) 
waterfalls  10,  17,  39*,  64*,  68,  80, 

125*,  134,  219 
Waterloo,  Iowa  wd-tgr-lod'  54  (55, 

G4) 
water-power  5,  7*,  8,  21*,  27,  42,  62, 

75,  112,  184,  189*  295-297 
waterways  14*,  41,  88*,  100*,  189, 

198,   296*,  297*,  301 ;  see  also 

canals  and  rivers 
waterways,    internationalized    190, 

196,  215 
Weihaiwei  wa'hi-wa'  (247,  H  5) 
Welland  Canal  wgl'and  41  (35,  C  2) 
Wellington  263    (260,  H  6) 
Wenatchee  wg-nach'S  68  (73,  D  2) 
Weser  River  va'zgr  189  (161,  G  5) 
Western  Australia  262  (260,  B  4) 
Western  plateaus 
Australia  259  (258) 
North  America  65,  108  (122) 
South  America  (126) 
West  Indies  In'dlz  115-120  (119) 
West  Point  (85,  E  3) 
West  Virginia  34  (35,  B  4) 
wheat  49,   106,  149,  194,   199,  202, 

211,  253,  279,  App.  iv 
Wheeling,   West  Va.   hwgllng  29, 

34  (85,  B  3) 
"white  coal"  184 


White  Mts.  5,  11*,  12  (S,  M  2) 
White  River  38  (25,  J  2) 
White  Russia  200  (201,  E  4) 
White  Sea  198,  200  (161,  N  2) 
Whiting  Inviting  40  (45,  I)  4) 
Whitney.  Mt.  liwit'nl  79  (2,  C  3) 
Wichita  wlch'I-to  54  (55,  E  7) 
Wichita  Mts.  38  (2,  G  4) 
Wilkes-Barre  wilks'bar-I  29,  33  (35, 

E3) 
Willamette  River  wi-lam'gt  72,  81" 

(73,  C  3) 
Willimantic  wil-I-man'tlk  9  (13,  C  7) 
Wilmington,  Del.  34  (35,  E  4) 
Wilmington,  N.C.  17  (23,  J  2) 
Wilson,  Mt.  (76,  K  3) 
Wind  Cave  Nat.  Park  App.  v 
winds  272 ;  see  also  text  on  climate 
Windward  Islands  115  (119,  M  6) 
wine  146.  184,  204,  211 
Winnebago,  Lake  win-0-ba'go  44  (45, 

C3) 
Winnepesaukee,  Lake  wln-g-pg-sol  i 

(13,  D  5) 
Winnipeg  winl-peg  108  (107,  E  4) 
Winnipeg,  Lake  106  (107,  E  4) 
Winooski  R.  wi-noos'kll  1* (13,H  i) 
Winston-Salem  22  (23,  G 1) 
Wisconsin  wis-kon'sln  44  (45,  C  2) 
Wisconsi^River  46  (45,  C  2) 
wool  manufacture  7,  9, 106, 176, 178, 

184,  192 
Woonsocket  woon-sok'et  9  (13,  1)  7) 
Worcester  wSGs'tgr  9  (13,  D  6) 
world 

geographical  explorations  of  267- 
268  (App.  Plate  A) 

geography  of  267-276 

producing  regions  of  (App.  iv-v) 

trade  routes  of  (App.  Plate  B) 
Wyoming  wi-o'ming  72  (73,  L  4) 

Yablonoi  Mts.  ya-bl§-noi'  (232,  K  3) 
yak  245 

Yakima  River  yakl-ma  (78,  D  2) 
Yanbo  yan'bo  238*  (237,  D  6) 
Yangtze  River  yang'tsg    242,   243* 

(232,  J  6) 
Yap  yap  (App.  Plate  B,  Q  4) 
Yarkand  yiir-kand'  245  (250,  F  5) 
Yarmouth  104*  (107,  H  5) 
Yellow  River,  see  Hwang  River 
Yellowstone  National  Park  63,  64*, 

App.  v  (2,  V)  2) 
Yemen  ygm'gn  (237,  E  7) 
Yenisei  River  yg-ne-sS  g  240  (232, 

H3) 
Yokohama    yo'ko-ha'ma    248,   249* 

(250,  M  5) 
Yonkers  yon'kerz  31  (35,  F  3) 
Yonne  River  y*n  (1S2,  H  4) 
Yosemite  National  Park  yo-sgm'I-t# 

79,  80*,  App.  v  (2,  C  3) 
Ypres  g'pr'  (182,  H  3) 
Yucatan  Peninsula  yoo-ka-tan'  111 

(122,  G  11) 
Yukon  yGo'kon  109  (107,  A  3) 
Yukon  Delta  (122,  C  3) 
Yukon  Plateau  86  (122,  C  4) 
Yukon  River  86,  109  (84,  G  2) 

Zacatecas  sa-ka-tii'kas  (IIS,  T>  3) 

Zagreb  za'grgb  (209,  G  1) 

Zambezi  River  zdm-ba'zo  219*  (218, 

G6) 
Zanzibar  Island  zan-zl-bar'  223  (218, 

H5) 
Zealand  Island  ze'land  (171,  N  4) 
zinc  38,  41,  204,  292 
Zion  Nat.  Park  zi'on  App.  v  (76,  G  3) 
zones  of  altitude  112,  114 
zones  of  latitude  270 
Zuider  Zee   zoi'dgr  za'  or  zi'dgr  zg' 

175  (171,  K  5) 
Zulus  zoo'looz  219 
Zungarian  Basin  zoon-ga'rl-an  (232, 

G4) 
Zurich  tsu'rlK  188  (208,  E 1) 


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